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	<title>Eyes On Europe</title>
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		<title>&#8220;Climate is our patrimony, it can not be negotiated&#8221;</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/climate-is-our-patrimony-it-can-not-be-negotiated/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/climate-is-our-patrimony-it-can-not-be-negotiated/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Dec 2009 10:14:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Dossier : EU Crisis Management]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=180</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Climatologist Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele at COP 15
 Interview prepared by Natasja Bohez Rubiano and Julien Demoustier
EOE: [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">Climatologist Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele at COP 15</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB"> </span><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">Interview prepared by Natasja Bohez Rubiano and Julien Demoustier</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">EOE: Do you think the Danish Prime Minister&#8217;s objectives to reduce CO2 by 50% in 2050 or the EU&#8217;s aims to reduce CO2 by 20% in 2020 are sufficient and realistic?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: That entirely depends on what you call realistic. If we want to prevent global temperatures from rising more than 2 degrees, developed nations have to cut CO2 emissions from 50% to 80% by 2050. It is better to set objectives rather than not having any at all. In terms of what is sufficient to stop global warming, it is not enough if our efforts simply stop at staying below a temperature rise of 2 degrees. The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) can however not determine &#8220;absolute&#8221; figures. In other words, we are responsible for recording scientific observations but establishing a limit for the rise of global temperature is ultimately a political choice.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">EOE: How can the EU play a major role in the negotiations given that Europe is not the world&#8217;s largest CO2 polluter?</p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: The USA and China produce together nearly 40% of worldwide emissions whereas the EU is responsible for contributing to global warming with an emission rate of 12%. Notwithstanding, Europe plays a key role in the negotiations because of its credibility. We can not forget that we signed and ratified the Kyoto deal because of Europe, even if at the time opposition from the USA and Australia was fierce. What&#8217;s more, Europe is the only region in the world to group countries that put in place greenhouse gas emission trading schemes even before Kyoto entered into force in 2005. Meeting commitments to regulate and reduce emissions in the context of the Kyoto Protocol sustains Europe&#8217;s credibility to remain a forefront runner during the negotiations in Copenhagen. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">EOE: Transport is not covered by the Kyoto Protocol although it is responsible for about 25% of worldwide emissions so the right priorities need to be set to make transport more sustainable to contribute to a low carbon future, how do you expect this to happen if no legally binding measures are taken at Copenhagen?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: If you set a price for carbon, it will automatically spread to all the sectors, including transport. The real challenge that we are facing is air traffic which within the transport sector shows the most rapid increase in emissions and is predicted to increase even more in the future. The problem with airplane fuel is that it&#8217;s not part of the evaluation system and is thus not taxed. This is of course a huge distortion for competition with the railway market. However, Europe is once again a forefront runner in this domain because it is pushing the aviation sector more and more to respect the environment.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">EOE: Apart from statistics, there is much talk of different indicators to measure CO2 (the Chinese for example have proposed carbon intensity as an indicator). To what extent is this a problem given that this distracts the attention from the objectives?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: Indeed, if you use carbon intensity in the atmosphere as an indicator, you partly risk diverting attention from what is really emitted in the air. If we want to control pollution, it makes much more sense to measure emissions per inhabitant. It&#8217;s not possible for an American to emit 25 tons a year, a European 12 tons, a Chinese 5 tons and an African less than 1 ton a year if global CO2 emissions are to be regulated in a fair way. In the long run we need to evolve towards a situation where CO2 emissions per inhabitant are on a level playing field between developing and developed nations. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">EOE: The discourse from industrialised countries and developing nations underlie very different interests, is it therefore not difficult to say that they are speaking a common language?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: We are evolving towards a better understanding because climate change is a <span style="text-decoration: underline;">global</span> phenomenon. What needs to become compatible is the trajectory towards solving climate change. Even if the responsibilities are different, they are common. Developing nations insisted on this notion which is at the basis of the Kyoto Convention. We all know that climate is not an asset that can be negotiated; it is the patrimony of humanity.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">J.P. VY: What are your hopes for the much expected COP15 deal?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">That we may conclude a deal that is consistent with what the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change has put on the table. We command the means to reduce emissions because the technology and the technological resources are available. We see the change in attitude with over 100 heads of state reunited in Copenhagen. What we need now is the political will to successfully conclude a successful COP15 agreement.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<div style="padding-bottom: 1pt; padding-left: 4pt; padding-right: 4pt; padding-top: 1pt; mso-element: para-border-div; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; border: windowtext 1pt solid;">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 1.0pt 4.0pt 1.0pt 4.0pt; padding: 0cm;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">WHO IS JEAN-PASCAL VAN YPERSELE?</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 1.0pt 4.0pt 1.0pt 4.0pt; padding: 0cm;"><span style="line-height: 115%; font-family: " lang="EN-GB">Since 2008, Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele is one of the 3 vice-presidents of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the United Nations which started to evaluate the risk of climate change caused by human activity in the late 80s. Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele obtained his PhD in Physics at Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL) in Belgium where he currently teaches Climatology and Environmental Sciences. </span></p>
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		<title>Evaluating the CFSP/ESDP: A plea for theory-driven comparative studies</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/evaluating-the-cfspesdp-a-plea-for-theory-driven-comparative-studies/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/evaluating-the-cfspesdp-a-plea-for-theory-driven-comparative-studies/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 12 Dec 2009 13:40:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Dossier : EU Crisis Management]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=179</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[ 
Tobias Heider, PhD Candidate, Free University Berlin (FU-Berlin) [1]
 
Starting with a review of [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Tobias Heider, PhD Candidate, Free University Berlin (FU-Berlin) [1]<a name="_ftnref1" href="#_ftn1"></a></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><em><span style="font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-GB">Starting with a review of current research on European security policy, this article argues in favour of a more theory-driven comparative research agenda for the evaluation of European crisis management. It introduces two models that are derived from the literature on international regimes and coercion: The EU as a Mediator and an External Power, and which allows for empirical testing via the degree of Neutrality and Credibility. Beyond evaluation, the research design proposes five causal institutionalist explanations of why in certain empirical cases, European impact on the ground is weak and in other cases stronger.</span></em></p>
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<p><span id="more-179"></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">A Critique of current research</span></strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In 1998, five years after the birth of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), Knud-Erik Jørgensen asked the CFSP academic community <em>How Should We Measure Success</em>? He identified three sources that might provide an answer: the actors involved in the political process, outside observers and a combination of the two (Jørgensen, 1998: 87). In <em>The European Union As Others See It</em>, Martin Holland et al (2006) also highlighting the importance of the target’s perceptions when evaluating EU foreign policy. In Holland’s view, the analytical focus should be on local or regional actors that are targeted by CFSP measures.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">While the academic community has produced a considerable amount of excellent studies regarding different security policies and military operations and the functioning of EU crisis management in general, we are still far from offering a persuasive answer to Jørgensen’s question which seems important for researchers and politicians alike. With Bassuener/Ferhatovic (2007) and Vajic (1992) only two publications are available that explicitly focus on the perception of CFSP’s targets.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">There are two main problems that remain to be solved in order to deepen our knowledge about the impact of CFSP/ESDP on target actors and the success rate. The first problem concerns the adequate operationalization of existing theoretical concepts to measure the impact of the CFSP’s impact. Classic theoretical concepts of CFSP’s impact include <em>civilian power</em> (Dûchene, 1977 and Whitman, 1998), <em>capability-expectations-gap</em> (Hill, 1993), <em>international presence </em>(Allen/Smith, 1990), <em>international identity</em> (Whitman, 1998), <em>international personification</em> (Rhodes, 1998). More recently, scholars have advanced <em>normative influence/power</em> (Björkdahl, 2005, Noutcheva 2007), <em>transformative power (</em>Diez et al, 2006) and <em>external governance</em> (Lavenex, 2004 and Schimmelfennig/Wagner, 2004) as theoretical standards to examine policy output and impact. </span></p>
<p class="MsoFooter"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">While these concepts have a theoretical appeal, they tend to be underutilized because only few of these concepts readily identify indicators that allow for empirical measurement and comparative analysis. Furthermore, the more applicable concepts often pertain to rather specific policy issues.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">For instance, while the recent concept of <em>external governance</em> enjoys a comprehensive theoretical concept and empirical measurable indicators (Diez et al, 2006), its primary focus is on soft security and not the management and prevention of violent conflict. Similarly, <em>normative power </em>seems to be first of all an analytical tool for measuring the effects of post-conflict stabilization programs, not for crisis management during political and military crises (Björkdahl, 2005 and Noutcheva, 2007). Only for Hills’ seminal concept of a <em>capability-expectations-gap</em>, two studies have been conducted that explicitly focus on political and military crisis and the impact of EPC and CFSP (Ahlbrecht, 2004 and Dover, 2005). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The second problem seems to be related to the socialisation and training of the CFSP academic community. Most CFSP/ESDP experts are extremely well-informed about PSC, EUMC, SITCEN, CPCC and DG RELEX procedures, personnel, budget and capabilities, but lack regional expertise. The problem starts as soon as one wants to explore the question of CFSP’s impact on target countries, government or rebels. Here, a minimum degree of regional expertise seems indispensable, especially if one seeks to identify minor and perhaps even unintended behavioural changes at the target level. I am not regional expert myself and my impression is that more often than not, the effects and success rates of CFSP/ESDP are less than obvious, especially if one is not well-versed in the historical and political background of a country. Furthermore, easily classifiable major events such as cease fires and peace agreements are rare and often the changes in the hostility level occur on the combat-unit or individual level. It seems that a lot of progress could be made if CFSP experts and regional experts worked closer together than is currently case.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">EU Crisis Management models: <em>Mediator</em> and <em>External Power</em></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">I seek to contribute to the research on a theoretically informed, but empirically tenable concept of policy impact and success by drawing on recent developments in the rationalist conflict literature. While these concepts are not entirely novel, they have not been applied to the study of CFSP/ESDP so much.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The rationalist literature starts with the problem structure that drives a conflict among local or regional actors, states or rebel groups. According to James Fearon (1995), such conflicts have in general two possible problem structures. The less problematic is a “Prisoner’s Dilemma” situation, in which compromise is possible but actors are not able to secure it because they do not trust the commitment of the rival. By contrast, in a zero-sum or “Rambo” game, preferences are incompatible in such a way that compromise it out of question and resolution means the defeat of one party.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Authors like Lisa Martin (1992), James Fearon (1995) and Virgina Page Fortna (2003) argue that an external crisis manager is able to resolve a <em>commitment-problem</em> by providing neutral and credible <em>mediation</em> and <em>implementation guarantees</em>. In zero-sum situations, an external crisis manager needs to be partial and ready to invest in sanctions, military threats or positive incentives and thereby persuade at least one party to give in. Hence, these measures are designed to make the continuation of fighting getting too costly in comparison to the benefits of peace for the target. According to the <em>external power </em>model it is critical that the parties in conflict perceive such economic and military threats or economic or humanitarian aid as credible.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">I propose a conceptualization of EU crisis management that relies on two models: “CFSP as a Mediator” and “CFSP as an External Power”. Regarding the mediator, the adoption of cooperative behaviour by the parties in conflict depends on both, the degree of neutrality and credibility. Regarding the external power role, only the degree of credibility matters.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Factors that strengthen CFSP’s Credibility and Neutrality on the ground</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The IR literature identifies at least nine indicators that can be used to identify CFSP’s credibility and neutrality, both as external power and mediator. Four of them focus on the mediator role and five on the external power role.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"><span> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Containment the Commitment Problem</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">: The credibility of a mediator is increased and with it the likelihood of peace, if he is able to <em>side payments </em>and <em>issue-linkages</em> (Martin, 1992: 145, Martin, 1993: 407). Secondly, credibility is generated and increased, if parties in conflict delegate<em> monitoring</em> for compliance and <em>punishment </em>of non-compliance to the mediator, once a compromise has been secured.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Reduction of Uncertainty</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">: One well-known source of war and violent conflict is a poor information flow between rivals about intentions, resolve and capabilities. A mediator can provide vital information and increase his neutrality if he is able to <em>formalize a high degree of clarity</em> and <em>precision </em>regarding the terms of cooperation among opponents and provide <em>monitoring on a regular basis</em> (Page Fortna, 2003). </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Increasing the credibility of carrots and sticks</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">: According to the literature on coercion (George 1994, Regan 1996, Freedman 1998, Auger 1999) and external incentives (e.g. Schimmelfennig, 2007) at least five factors make economic and/or military threats more credible or financial, economic or political aid more attractive so that parties in conflict abandon a confrontational strategy. The most important factor for increasing the external power’s credibility is the amount of <em>enforcement costs </em>invested by the sender (Freedman, 1998: 5). Other factors that can be examined to measure the external power’s credibility of are <em>message clarity</em> and the <em>directness of communication </em>between sender and target (Freedman, 1998: 24f). Additionally, the level of credibility is decreased with raising <em>number of members of a coalition</em> of senders and it is increased in case the sender is <em>partial</em>, preferably for the local government (Regan, 1996).</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In the next section I will turn to the question on what to do once different degrees of credibility and neutrality have been identified in an empirical case. Often, researchers want to move from description to explanation, i.e. they would like to explore the reasons for the variance in CFSP’s impact on conflicts across and in between cases.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Higher institutionalization=higher effectiveness?</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">A multitude of different factors potentially explains varying degrees success and failure of European crisis management. But for most people studying CFSP and ESDP in action, the crucial question is: how does the CFSP’s institutional design affect its credibility and the neutrality of its policies? Indeed, academics and politicians alike often argue or hypothesize that increasing institutional procedures and capacities of CFSP and ESDP have increased the chances for obtaining more positive impact, the effectiveness of EU crisis management on the ground. Specifically, most observers agree that the shifts from EPC to CFSP in 1993, from the Maastricht regime to Amsterdam in 1999, and then to ESDP with Nice in 2003, have continually equipped the EU with a better institutional framework for managing crisis abroad.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Conventional institutionalism provides several factors that allow empirical testing of this general <em>Institutionalization-Hypothesis</em>. All these mechanisms focus on the ability of rules, procedures and other institutional tools to overcome a second problem of collective action. This problem pertains to the difficulty of member states to conduct common policies and coordinate national policies while they have to cater to their specific domestic constituencies. The following five institutional mechanisms appear to be the most relevant for the reduction of this problem which arise as soon as members states try to act collectively via a CFSP policy.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Pooling of transaction costs</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (Keohane, 1984 and Martin, 1992): The credibility of EU crisis management heavily depends on both, the ex ante mobilization of member states and the ex post avoidance of unilateral defections by single member states. Empirically, a huge step regarding the reduction of transaction cost has been made by transferring EPC organs, working groups and the secretariat into the unitary institutional structure with the Treaty of Maastricht.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Transparency of decision-making</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (Martin, 1993): The credibility of EU crisis management is directly related to the ability of being able to send clear, strong and direct messages to target actors, which is only possible if the “noise” by single member states and also institutional actors is reduced. In reality, transparency increased with the introduction of the European Council’s competence on general CFSP guidelines in 1993 and with the introduction of the legal instrument Joint Action. The latter formally requires EU Foreign ministers to clarify goals, means and time frame for operative measures in the field of crisis management.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Increase in internal ex post monitoring</span></span><span lang="EN-GB"> (Martin, 1992 and Drezner, 2000): The credibility of EU crisis management is strongly dependent on institutional mechanisms that detect and punish unilateral defection of single member states. Until now, there are only few formal institutional elements that allow for effective internal monitoring and punishment. In general, the Maastricht treaty charged the Foreign affairs ministers with “politico-moral” self-control of their colleagues’ respect for Joint Actions and Common Positions. In the case of the economic sanctions against Yugoslavia, the EU created an ad hoc capacity to monitor compliance (SAMCOM), partially because Greek and Italian companies continued to deliver goods to the region.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Reduction in reaction time</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">: The credibility of EU crisis management depends on the ability to react within a short time frame which requires mechanisms to overcome blockades by single members states. The most well-known development is this regard is the introduction of qualified majority voting (QMV). In contrast to EPC decision making rules, which relied on a consensual mode, CFSP introduced the possibility to decide by consensus the use of QMV for subordinate decisions related to the implementation of Joint Actions. In reality, Foreign ministers and Political directors alike continue with pure consensual decision making.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span lang="EN-GB">Containment of strong members</span></span><span lang="EN-GB">: The neutrality of EU crisis management is dependent on the ability to reduce the bargaining power of single powerful member states. There are only few institutional mechanisms that have been introduced by the Maastricht treaty that reduce for example the danger of France pushing for an ESDP operation to secure post-colonial interests somewhere in Africa. QMV would have been such a mechanism, but it is not relevant. CFSP introduced three mechanisms that “civilize” the actions of powerful member states: The obligation to report in advance in case of disagreement to the Council and the “legalization” of national urgency measures provided they respect certain standards. Additionally, the Amsterdam Treaty introduced “constructive abstention” as a third possibility.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Comparative CFSP-Studies</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In general, it is crucial to compare across cases and within cases (King et al, 1994) in order to increase general knowledge about the effects of EU crisis management and the reasons for success and failure. I argue that the question of the relevance of CFSP’s institutional design can only be answered when comparing different degrees of institutionalization. In short, there has to be variance of institutional design features between cases.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Because almost all international institutions, also the <em>sui generis</em> CFSP, is only an intervening factor in the strategic interplay between member states and actors in crisis regions, one has to take care of and control for member states’ and local actors’ preferences. In case a member state or a party in the conflict profoundly changes its preference structure, it is difficult to show that varying degrees of cooperative or non-cooperative behaviour has something to do with institutional, procedural or administrative changes in CFSP’s Brussels headquarters.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB">Bosnia</span></strong><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> 1991-1994: Both EPC and CFSP in action</span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The Bosnian conflict is a good testing ground for the evaluation the two model’s predictions of the EU’s crisis management. It also provides an excellent opportunity for testing the institutionalization hypothesis because between both the European crisis management initiatives as well as the institutional setup changed from EPC to CFSP while the Bosnian conflict remained relatively stable.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In early 1992, European Political Cooperation (EPC) intervened with two main instruments in the Bosnian conflict. At that time, there was a sharp political conflict between three factions, but war had not yet broken out. EPC Foreign ministers were responsible for decision-making on the recognition policy. A team composed of the chairman of the International Conference on Yugoslavia (ICY), Lord Carrinton, and Jose Cutileiro, the Portuguese Presidency’s political director, was responsible for a mediation initiative called <em>Carrington-Cutileiro-Plan</em>, or Cantonization-Plan. Despite the signing of two agreements regarding Bosnia’s external borders and the introduction of three ethnic cantons which had been mediated by Cutileiro on 23 February and 18 March, war broke out around March 25 1992. Two weeks later EPC Foreign ministers recognised Bosnia’s independence on April 6<sup>th</sup>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In the run-up to European mediation, the parties in conflict tried twice to secure a compromise on their own. These failed compromises consisted in constitutional changes that made the regions in Bosnia stronger, but which had to be implemented before international recognition. By following a strategy of simply combining maximalist positions, ethnic mini-states and recognition before constitutional reform, European mediators and Foreign ministers alike were not able to foster both, neutrality and credibility. This was on the one hand a policy failure due to misunderstandings on the nature of the conflict and a lack of willingness to invest in credible implementation guarantees: the <em>Carrington-Cutileiro</em>-Plan offered half a dozen legal experts for the territorial demarcation of the three ethnic cantons it had proposed and offered no guarantees for the respect of external borders. Institutionally, European crisis management was planned and executed by two different bodies that were not, on a regular basis, exchanging drafts cantonization plans and timetables regarding recognition policy. The creation of an ad hoc body for mediation had actually raised transaction costs and so forth.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">In November 1993, within two and a half weeks, Foreign ministers and Political directors were able to draft a comprehensive peace plan, the so-called EU Action Plan. This plan comprised percentages of the overall Bosnian territory for each of the three ethnic republics and included a mixture of carrots and sticks: lifting sanctions against Serbia-Montenegro in case <em>Republika Srpska</em> renounces 3.5% more territory to the Bosnian government in comparison to the last ICFY-Plan from late September 1993. In case the Bosnian government accepted this additional territory as a final solution for its search for a “viable territory”, the EU Action Plan offered economic assistance, reconstruction and more humanitarian aid. On November 22, GAERC adopted the Action Plan and send EU Special envoy Lord Owen in order to negotiate the plan. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">After four weeks of intense negotiations, comprising two plenary sessions with GAERC, Serbia, Croatia and the three Bosnian parties, and also several bilateral round chaired by Owen, the EU Action Plan failed and all three parties started military offensives by the end of December 1993. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">This second case shows that CFSP was equipped with a much better institutional framework for planning EU crisis management. Peace plans and incentives were integrated into one comprehensive concept following a clear internal procedure from PC to GAERC and then to the Special envoy. But there were two policy failures and one institutional element that are responsible for the overall failure: the EU Action Plan did not focus on the behaviour of the Croatians, Tudjman and his Bosnian ally Boban, who were responsible for much of the fighting in 1993 in their search to establish <em>Herzeg Bosna</em>, the Croatian counterpart to <em>Republica Srpska</em>. The EU Action Plan neither offered carrots nor sticks to Tudjman and Boban for a more cooperative behaviour. Second, the lifting of sanctions against Serbia-Montenegro in case the Bosnian Serb leadership complies was not credible because GEARC and Owen did not secure, in advance, the support of the UN Security Council, who was the relevant body for decisions on suspension and lifting of sanctions against Serbia-Montenegro.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The grave institutional failure was due to the fact, that EU Special envoy Lord Owen had tried hard to negotiate a bilateral settlement between Milosevic and Tudjman, ignoring the mandate given by the EU Action Plan which explicitly stipulated a multilateral solution and partiality in favour of the Bosnian government in their search to get a “viable territory”. Two days before the final round of negotiations Political directors tried to secure the pro-Bosnian approach of the EU Action Plan by issuing, without consulting Owen, a “Request to all the parties” directly faxed to the parties in conflict. But again, Owen ignored this second and much more precise EU Action Plan and continued with his bilateral approach that was unacceptable for the Bosnian government. Owen was able to ignore his EU mandate several times because he was able to formally switch the negotiation fora being not only the EU Special envoy but also at the same time the chair of the International Conference on Former-Yugoslavia (ICFY). In institutional terms, this second case reveals that the main reason for failure resided in poor mandate implementation, meaning the lack of control by GAERC and PC regarding the own Special representative. A “politico-moral” supervision by GAERC and parallel negotiation by the Political Committee was not sufficient to stimulate cooperation of the parties in conflict.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">To conclude, the two Bosnian cases show little evidence for EPC/CFSP being a credible and neutral mediator or external power. One part of the problem seems to be the mix of the two models, mediator and external power, in the planning of crisis management initiatives. The two Bosnian cases also show that the introduction of CFSP increased the ability to plan comprehensive and coherent peace plans, but that at this time mechanism that effectively control the EU Special representative were lacking and became one major reason for the overall failure in the implementation phase. Lastly, both cases also falsify the institutionalization-hypothesis, but other comparative studies might come to a much more positive conclusion.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><strong><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">BJORKDAHL, Annika, Norm-maker and Norm-taker: Exploring the Normative Influence of the EU in Macedonia, 2005, in: European Foreign Affairs Review, pp. 257-278.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">DIEZ, Thomas/STETTER, Stephan/ALBERT, Mathias, The European Union and Border Conflicts: The Transformative Power of Integration, 2006, in: International Organization, pp. 563-593.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">DOVER</span><span lang="EN-GB">, Robert, The EU and the Bosnian Civil War 1992-95: The Capabilities-Expectations Gap at the Heart of EU Foreign Policy, 2005, in: European Security, pp. 297-318.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">DREZNER, Daniel, Bargaining, Enforcement, and Multilateral Sanctions: When Is Cooperation Counterproductive? 2000, in: International Organization, pp. 73-102.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="DE">DUCHÊNE, François, Die Rolle Europas im Weltsystem. Von der regionalen zur planetarischen Interdependenz, 1973, in: Kohnstamm, Max/Hager, Wolfgang (ed.), Zivilmacht Europa – Supermacht oder Partner?, pp. 11-35. </span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">FEARON, James, Rationalist explanation for war, 1995, in: International Organization, 49: 3, p. 379-414.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">FREEDMAN, Lawrence, Strategic Coercion. Concepts and Cases, 1998, Oxford</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">GEORGE, Alexander, Avoiding War. Problems of Crisis Management, 1991, Boulder.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">HILL, Christopher, The Capability-Expectations Gap or Conceptualizing Europe’s International Role, 1993, in: JCMS, 31:3, pp. 305-328.</span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">HOLLAND</span><span lang="EN-GB">, Martin/CHABLAN, Natalia/ELGSTRÖM, Ole, The European Union As Others See It, 2006, in: European Foreign Affairs Review, pp. 245-262.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">JØRGENSON, Knud-Erik, The European Union’s Performance in World Politics: How Should We Measure Success? 1998, in: Zielonka, Jan (ed.), Paradoxes of European Foreign Policy, Den Haag, pp. 87-101.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">KEOHANE, Robert O., After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, 1984, Princeton.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">KING, Gary/KEOHANE, Robert O./VERBA, Sidney, Designing Social Inquiry, 1994, Princeton.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">LAVENEX, Sandra, EU external governance in ‘wider Europe’, 2004, in: Journal of European Public Policy, pp. 680-700.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">MARTIN, Lisa, Institutions and Cooperation: Sanctions during the Falkland Islands Conflict, 1992, in: International Security, pp. 143-178.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">MARTIN, Lisa, </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;" lang="EN-GB">Credibility, Costs, and Institutions: Cooperation on Economic Sanctions, 1993, in: World Politics, pp. 406-432</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">NUTCHEVA, Gergana, Fake, Partial and Imposed Compliance. The Limits of the EU’s normative Power in the Western Balkans, 2007, in: CEPS Working Document, Brussels.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">PAGE FORTNA, Virginia, Peace Time. Cease-Fire Agreements and Durability of Peace, 2004, Princeton.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">REGAN, Patrick, Conditions of Successful Third-Party Intervention in Intrastate Conflicts, 1996, in: Journal of Conflict Resolution, pp. 336-359.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="EN-GB">RHODES, Carolyn, The European Union in the World Commnity, 1998, Boulder.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">SCHIMMELFENNIG, Frank, 2007, Europeanization beyond Europe, 2007, in: <em>Living Reviews in European Governance</em>, Online-Article.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">SCHIMMELFENNIG, Frank/WAGNER, Wolfgang, Preface: External governance in the European Union, 2004, in: Journal of European Public Policy, pp. 657-660.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">VAJIC, Nina, View From Yugoslavia: Political Union to Avoid Nineteenth Century Foreign Policy, 1992, in: Rummel, Reinhardt, Toward Political Union. Planning a Common Foreign and Security Policy in the European Community, Boulder, pp. 253-258.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">WAGNER Wolfgang, Why the EU’s common foreign and security policy will remain intergouvernmental: a rationalist institutional choice analysis of European crisis management policy, 2003, in: Journal of European Public Policy, pp. 576-595.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -27pt;"><span lang="EN-GB"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">WHITMAN, Richard, From Civilian Power to Superpower? The International Identity of the European Union, 1998, New York.<strong></strong></span></p>
<div>
<hr size="1" />
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a name="_ftn1" href="#_ftnref1"></a><span lang="EN-GB">[1] I am very grateful to the Volkswagen Foundation in the context of the EFSPS-program for their generous financial support during the last two years which allowed me to pursue an in depth-analysis of EPC and CFSP impact on the Bosnian conflict 1991-1994.</span></p>
</div>
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		<title>EoE 11 : Out Now</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/lecture-eu-crisis-management-and-the-lisbon-treaty/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/lecture-eu-crisis-management-and-the-lisbon-treaty/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 03 Dec 2009 01:04:40 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Dossier : EU Crisis Management]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Le magazine EoE 11 est disponible dès maintenant au Pub et au Bespo (ULB). Pour [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Le <a href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/fr/previous-issues/issue-11/">magazine EoE 11</a> est disponible dès maintenant au Pub et au Bespo (ULB). Pour les autres points de vente veillez <a href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/fr/contact-us/">nous contacter</a>.</p>
<p><a href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/previous-issues/issue-11/">EoE issue 11</a> is available now at the Pub and Bespo (ULB). For other outlets please <a href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/contact-us/">contact us</a>.</p>
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		<title>L’assistance à la réforme de police mise en œuvre en République Démocratique du Congo sous l’égide de la PESD: l’Union européenne est-elle une force motrice ?</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/l%e2%80%99assistance-a-la-reforme-de-police-mise-en-oeuvre-en-republique-democratique-du-congo-sous-l%e2%80%99egide-de-la-pesd-l%e2%80%99union-europeenne-est-elle-une-force-motrice/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/l%e2%80%99assistance-a-la-reforme-de-police-mise-en-oeuvre-en-republique-democratique-du-congo-sous-l%e2%80%99egide-de-la-pesd-l%e2%80%99union-europeenne-est-elle-une-force-motrice/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 03 Dec 2009 00:27:58 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Dossier : EU Crisis Management]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=175</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Isabelle Maras, Doctorante en études européennes de sécurité à l’Institut für Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik (IFSH) [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Isabelle Maras, Doctorante en études européennes de sécurité à l’Institut für Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik (IFSH) près l’Université d’Hamburg (Allemagne), collaboratrice du Pôle Bernheim d’Etudes sur la Paix et la Citoyenneté.</p>
<p><em>S’appuyant de longue date sur la vaste palette d’instruments de politique extérieure dont elle dispose, l’Union européenne souhaite contribuer à l’établissement d’une paix durable en République Démocratique du Congo (RDC), qui demeure dévastée par des années de guerre civile. Depuis le lancement d’EUPOL Kinshasa en 2005, première mission civile de gestion de crise à être déployée en Afrique, l’UE s’efforce en particulier de mieux coordonner son action au sein de la Politique européenne de sécurité et de défense (PESD) en initiant des synergies dans les secteurs de la police et de la justice s’inscrivant dans la Réforme du Secteur de la Sécurité (RSS). Pour autant, la stratégie poursuivie par l’UE en matière d’assistance aux forces de police comporte des lacunes et peine à répondre au contexte sécuritaire local. Afin d’adapter ses modalités d’action à la gouvernance de sécurité qui prévaut en RDC, l’Union européenne doit prendre au plus vite la mesure de la diversité des acteurs impliqués, de la corruption endémique et des nouveaux enjeux sécuritaires qu’ils impliquent.</em></p>
<p>Avec deux périodes de guerre civile (1996-97 et 1998-2003) et un conflit civil qui perdure au Nord-Kivu, l’histoire politique récente de la RDC est marquée par une instabilité politique chronique[1]. Cette dernière s’inscrit dans la crise régionale plus large affectant la Région des Grands Lacs qui implique les pays voisins de la RDC aux stratégies belligérantes concurrentes (Hoebeke/Carette/Vlassenroot 2007: 4-5).</p>
<p><strong>Les modalités de l’engagement de l’Union européenne en RD Congo</strong></p>
<p>Cadre structurant de l’intervention extérieure en RD Congo, la Réforme du Secteur de la Sécurité (RSS) polarise largement les activités d’établissement d’institutions étatiques menées tant par l’Union européenne que par les donateurs internationaux.</p>
<p>A cet égard, l’exigence de coordination et de cohérence qui s’impose aux institutions européennes mais aussi à certains Etats membres engagés dans des programmes de RSS confère un caractère quasi unique à la RDC (Davies 2009: 27; Martinelli 2008: 111). L’UE a d’ailleurs récemment fait part de sa volonté d’endosser un rôle de coordination des activités de SSR en RDC (Council of the EU 2009c: 1).</p>
<p>L’UE a de longue date fait appel à la vaste palette d’instruments dont elle dispose en situation d’intervention extérieure (Martinelli 2008: 111)[2], en particulier via les deux volets que sont l’action communautaire (1er pilier - l’aide humanitaire et au développement, assistance technique, soutien diplomatique, accord de partenariat ACP-UE dit “de Cotonou”) et celle de la Politique européenne de sécurité commune (PESC) (2nd pilier - missions militaires ARTEMIS (2003), EUFOR RDC (2006) ainsi que les missions civiles de la PESD de soutien à la réforme du secteur de la sécurité que sont EUPOL Kinshasa suivie d’EUPOL RD Congo, EUSEC RD Congo). Cette implication de l’Union européenne s’ajoute à l’assistance bilatérale apportée par plusieurs pays membres (d’anciennes puissances coloniales pour certains) tels que la France, la Belgique, le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas.</p>
<p><strong>Le soutien international au processus de réforme de la police initié en RD Congo</strong></p>
<p>Les Nations Unies (à travers la MONUC[3]), l’Union européenne et certains de ses Etats membres (France et Royaume-Uni), l’Angola, l’Afrique du Sud ainsi que le Japon constituent les principaux acteurs internationaux à s’être impliqués dans la formation et la réforme des forces de polices en République démocratique du Congo (Rauch/Van der Spuy 2006: 75-76; Keane 2008: 222).</p>
<p>De limitée lors de la période précédent les élections, la coordination des efforts entre donateurs dans ce domaine est devenue plus étroite depuis la fin 2005, menant à la prise de conscience de la nécessité d’une approche plus cohérente envers la réforme de police (Keane 2008: 223). Depuis 2006, l’élaboration d’une stratégie de réforme du secteur de la police en RDC est un processus initié au plan national, avec le solide soutien des acteurs locaux et internationaux concernés.</p>
<p>En février 2006, le Groupe mixte de réflexion sur la réforme et la réorganisation de la Police Nationale Congolaise (ci-après GMRRR) fut chargé d’évaluer l’état de la PNC, de déterminer les priorités pour la réforme du secteur de la police dans le pays ainsi que de rédiger le cadre légal de l’organisation générale des forces de police (Davis 2009: 20)[4].</p>
<p>Le constat posé par le rapport final du GMRRR fut accablant: dans son état actuel, la police congolaise ne pouvait en aucun cas se prévaloir d’être un pilier de l’état de droit ou assurer la sécurité des citoyens (Davis 2009: 20). Le manque de cohésion et de structure des forces de police nouvellement constituées est en effet criant: née des ruines de la force de police précédente mais aussi de la Police Urbaine, de la Gendarmerie et de la Garde civile, la police rassemble des combatants issus des rangs de services de sécurité et milices ayant été partie prenante au conflit (Davis 2009: 19). S’ajoutant au manque structurel de capacités en matière d’investigation criminelle, les pratiques de corruption et la culture d’impunité régnant dans les rangs des officiers de police et de leur supérieurs gangrènent la police congolaise. Ainsi, des cas répétés d’atteintes aux droits de l’homme et notamment de violences sexuelles et de crimes contre des enfants ainsi que l’extorsion de fonds généralisée, les détentions illégales, l’usage de la torture et les exécutions arbitraires ont été rapportés dans l’ensemble des strates du corps policier congolais (Davis 2009: 20).</p>
<p>La parution de ce rapport mena à la création d’un comité de mise en oeuvre mixte, le Comité de suivi de la réforme de la police (CSRP), dirigé par les autorités congolaises et comprenant les principaux donateurs dans ce secteur[5]. Conçu comme une organe mixte chargé d’encadrer le processus de réforme de la police: pour ce faire, CSRP a été chargé de l’élaboration d’un Plan d’action et d’assurer la coordination de la réforme de police entre les ministères et organes congolais concernés et les bailleurs de fonds internationaux (EUPOL RD Congo 2008).</p>
<p><strong>Les missions civiles de police mises en oeuvre sous l’égide de la PESD</strong></p>
<p>Fers de lance du volet civil de la PESD en RDC, deux missions civiles de police successives ont été mandatées depuis 2005 afin de soutenir et d’assister le processus de réforme des forces de police. La mission EUPOL RD Congo (Council of the EU 2007b) a pris la suite de la mission EUPOL Kinshasa (2003-2005), qui a constitué la première mission civile PESD a être déployée sur le continent africain.</p>
<p>De février 2005 à juin 2007, EUPOL Kinshasa a supervisé l’Unité de police intégrée (UPI), en charge de protéger les institutions de transition. A partir de mai 2005, le soutien de l’UE s’est centré sur trois activités: la réhabilitation et le fonctionnement d’un centre de formation et la fourniture d’équipement à l’UPI, la formation de l’UPI-même ainsi que le suivi et le tutorat des opérations de l’UPI (Keane 2008: 222).</p>
<p>Au terme du mandat d’EUPOL Kinshasa, EUPOL RD Congo a été chargée de prodiguer conseil et assistance pour la Réforme du Secteur de la Sécurité (directement aux autorités congolaises concernées et via le Comité de suivi de réforme de la police (CSRP) et le comité conjoint sur la justice) avec pour mandat de soutenir la réforme et la restructuration de la Police Nationale Congolaise (PNC) tout en promouvant l’interaction entre police et système judiciaire. Outre ses quartiers généraux situés dans les quartiers de Kinshasa, EUPOL déploie actuellement des officiers dans l’Est des Kivus de façon permanente (Goma et Bukavu) (Gya/Herz/Mauri 2009).</p>
<p>Composante essentielle de la stratégie plus large portant sur la réforme du secteur de la sécurité (RSS), la mission EUPOL - qui vient d’être prolongée jusqu’en juin 2010[6] - travaille en étroite co-opération avec EUSEC RD[7]. Elles s’appuient en effet sur une expertise conjointe en matière de droits de l’homme et l’engagement des enfants dans les conflits armés, les questions de genre, la presse, information et sécurité ainsi qu’un projet judiciaire de la Commission européenne. A titre d’exemple, EUPOL partage désormais un conseiller en matière de violence liées au genre (gender based violence, GBV) avec la mission RSS EUSEC et deux “conseillers en genre” supplémentaires sont en cours de recrutement (ISIS Europe, July 2009), bien qu’une stratégie de genre cohérente et globale semble encore faire défaut aux yeux de certains praticiens du secteur non-gouvernemental (Davis 2009: 28). Par ailleurs, une extension du mandat d’EUPOL sur la lutte contre les viols est sur le point d’être adoptée, tandis que le budget sera sensiblement augmenté (avec un montant annuel de 7,7 millions d&#8217;euros). Du personnel supplémentaire spécialisé dans les enquêtes pénales et la lutte contre les violences sexuelles devrait ainsi être déployé à Goma et à Bukavu. Une «cellule projets» chargée d&#8217;identifier et de mettre en oeuvre les projets s’inscrivant dans les domaines d&#8217;intérêt d’EUPOL renforcera par ailleurs les moyens de la mission (Gros-Verheyde 2009). EUPOL comme EUSEC RD Congo jouent également un rôle de coordination des projets mis en oeuvre par les Etats membres de l’UE en RDC.</p>
<p><strong>L’appui des acteurs européens et locaux aux missions de police</strong></p>
<p>Autre acteur européen incontournable en RDC, la Commission européenne a massivement appuyé les mesures de RSS menées dans la période post-guerre civile, en soutenant notamment l’agenda de bonne gouvernance. Parallèlement aux activités de soutien à la police menées par la MONUC et d’autres acteurs bilatéraux tels que l’Angola et l’Afrique du Sud, la Commission par exemple a financé la formation de près de 60 000 policiers depuis 1999 (et ce principalement à Kinshasa).</p>
<p>Par ailleurs, la Commission a grandement contribué à la mise en oeuvre de l’agenda de réforme initié dans le cadre de la PESD tant au plan financier, politique que de sa mise en oeuvre. Le support de l’UE à l’UPI a en effet constitué le premier projet conjoint mené par la Commission et EUPOL Kinshasa: il a contribué à mettre en lumière nombre de synergies entre ces agences mais a également souligné les rivalités institutionnelles et les cultures concurrentes qui les animent (Martinelli 2008: 118). Par la suite, la mission civile PESD a ensuite pris le relais des réformes initiées par le projet de la Commission qui avait financé l’équipement du centre de formation UPI et la formation de base prodiguée via le Fonds de développement européen (FDE) (qui s’élève à 9 millions d’euros (Martinelli 2008: 117). Au moyen de l’Instrument de Stabilité et du 9ème FDE, la Commission européenne a également contribué à hauteur de 400 000 euros à la construction des quartiers généraux du CSRP (EUPOL RD Congo 2008) tout en étant impliquée dans le développement de systèmes ou la restructuration du personnel de la police (Davis 2009: 27).</p>
<p>La société civile est également un relais non institutionnel d’importance dans les arrangements de sécurité relatifs à la réforme de police soutenue par la PESD.</p>
<p>Concentrés pour la plupart à Kinshasa, des représentants de la société civile ont par exemple pris part aux pourparlers sur la réforme de la police qui ont été facilités par la Commission européenne, EUPOL RD Congo et des organisations indépendantes telles que l’Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA). Des ONGs comme IDASA, Search for Common Ground, RNC Justice et Démocratie ainsi que Pax Christi Netherlands ont monté et mis en oeuvre des projets avec leurs homologues congolais ayant pour dessein de faciliter l’intégration communautaire et le dialogue avec à la fois la police et l’armée congolaise, ceci incluant souvent des éléments de formation. Aussi bien la Commission que les Pays-Bas, le Royaume-Uni, la Belgique et la Suède ont financé ces initiatives (Davis 2009: 28).</p>
<p><strong>Les dilemmes de la légitimité et efficacité de l’assistance à la réforme de police: une assistance mise à l’épreuve</strong></p>
<p>Des facteurs structurels notables tendent à diminuer la légitimité de l’assistance aux forces de police prodiguée via la PESD, en pesant sur la gouvernance de sécurité régissant les relations entre acteurs concernés.</p>
<p>D’une part, les relations bilatérales semblent en effet primer sur les relations multilatérales aux yeux du gouvernement congolais, ce dernier conservant ainsi sa main mise sur le processus et sapant les efforts entrepris vers une plus grande cohésion et coordination entre donateurs internationaux. Pis, la distance existant entre les autorités congolaises et la communauté internationale s’est trouvée accrue par l’interférence - ou du moins perçue comme telle - de la Belgique dans les affaires intérieures congolaises.</p>
<p>D’autre part, les stratégies bilatérales ayant un impact sur le secteur de la sécurité continuent d’être élaborées “sans planification stratégique conjointe avec d’autres Etats membres ou les institutions européennes”, ce qui mène certains Etats à faire fi des lignes directrices politiques et mécanismes sur lesquels le Conseil et la Commission s’étaient au préalable accordés (Davis 2009: 28-29). Des doublons en termes de compétences, de soutien financier et d’interventions peuvent être observés en ce qui concerne la réforme des services de police congolais. A titre d’exemple, EUPOL a entraîné des forces issues de l’Unité de police intégrée (UPI), de la Police d’intervention rapide (PIR) et du Groupe d’intervention rapide (GMI) et a apporté son soutien au renforcement de la Police judiciaire tandis que la France a également entraîné du personnel PIR et établi l’Ecole de police judiciaire (Davis 2009: 27).</p>
<p>A ce stade, le processus d’établissement du CSRP a ainsi été ralenti tandis que l’adoption de la loi organique ouvrant la voie a la réforme de la Police Nationale Congolaise a été repoussée. Cette adoption a été empêchée jusqu‘ici par deux obstacles majeurs. Le GMRRR semble en effet avoir des difficultés a définir le rôle qu’il doit jouer (Davis 2009: 20), tandis qu’un conflit durable opposant les Ministères congolais de la Justice et de l’Intérieur (ce dernier devant théoriquement chapeauter la police judiciaire selon la loi) empêche l’adoption de la loi organique posant les jalons de la structure de la PNC (Davis 2009: 20).</p>
<p>Par ailleurs, une autre catégorie d’acteurs pèsent sur l’effectivité des efforts entrepris dans le champ de la police, à savoir les acteurs privés de sécurité qui ont prospéré ces dernières années. La demande exponentielle pour ces services privés de police s’explique principalement par un sentiment diffus d’insécurité émanant presqu’exclusivement de résidents urbains et de companies privées qui peuvent matériellement faire appel à ces services, et ce notamment dans le secteur minier congolais hautement stratégique (De Goede 2008: 42). Ces nouveaux acteurs s’impliquent dans des activités telles que la sécurité au sens large, la prévention des crimes et délits, le gardiennage, le conseil en sécurité et l’évaluation du risque dans le secteur de la police (Institute of Security Studies 2007: 18).</p>
<p>Force est de constater que les policiers congolais demeurent irrégulièrement, peu ou pas rémunérés en dépit de l’assistance en matière de soutien technique, d’infrastructure et d’équipement notamment apportée par les acteurs européens.</p>
<p>Dans un tel contexte, l’uniforme de police est souvent synonyme de source de revenus supplémentaires substantiels, cette dérive étant encouragée au plus niveau de l’Etat. Le Président de la RDC lui-même prône le principe du “Débrouillez-vous”, encourageant ses forces de police à ne pas attendre et se contenter de leurs salaires mensuels. Ceci a conforté des pratiques quotidiennes de corruption et de racket ainsi que l’implication des forces de police dans des opérations illégales menées dans le secteur minier (Hönke 2009: 20). L’établissement de véritables partenariats entre la Police Nationale Congolaise, des sociétés privées (comme des banques et des sociétés minières) et des companies privées de sécurité conclus en 2003 attestent même du rôle de prestataire privé de sécurité que la police congolaise a pu être amenée à endosser (Hönke 2009: 20). En 2007, un officier d’EUPOL a d’ailleurs reconnu l’absence de toute transparence et de contrôle public des dépenses et des revenus complémentaires au sein de la police, les unités étant gérées de manière arbitraire par leurs commandants respectifs (De Goede 2008: 42). Ces dérives ont mené à un brouillage progressif des rôles respectifs des secteurs publics et privés dans ce secteur.</p>
<p>En opérant sur un marché privé, ces acteurs exploitent les failles politiques et structurelles engendrées par la faillite de l’Etat et l’instabilité politique - que les missions PESD visent pourtant précisément à combattre. Pour autant, cette question n’a pas suscité de réaction ou de plans d’action officiels jusqu’ici de la part d’EUPOL RD Congo, alors même que les acteurs privés de sécurité sont considérés comme des cibles d’action à part entière selon les lignes directrices de la RSS édictées par l’OCDE, largement reconnues à l’échelle internationale (OECD 2004).</p>
<p><strong>Conclusion</strong></p>
<p>Des praticiens issues d’organisations non gouvernementales ont souligné à de nombreuses reprises combien il était important que les acteurs engagés dans la RSS puissent nouer une relation de coopération avec le gouvernement tout en soutenant fermement une bonne gouvernance au sein du secteur de la sécurité. C’est pourquoi il apparaît plus que jamais nécessaire pour les donateurs d’acquérir une compréhension et une connaissance fine des loyautés en jeu et des nombreux intérêts qui divisent la police afin d’adapter leurs assistance aux réalités de terrain (Vaillant 2006: 4).</p>
<p>S’appuyant sur le mandat d’EUPOL et le Country Strategy Paper (CSP) de la Commission, la définition d’un rôle clair pour le CSRP et les garanties obtenues sur son opérationalité constituent deux éléments clé d’un engagement européen futur dans la réforme de police (Davis 2009: 27-28).</p>
<p>A cet égard, le manque de vision de l’UE concernant le rôle que doivent endosser les institutions chargées de la réforme de police couplé à l’absence de prise en compte explicite de l’impact des companies de sécurité privées sur les relations liant les acteurs du secteur de la police pourrait obérer l’efficacité de l’intervention menée par la PESD sur les problèmes de police au Congo, et au-delà, sur l’ensemble du système de gouvernance de la sécurité en cours en RDC.</p>
<p>En définitive, l’Union européenne doit faire preuve de réalisme lorsqu’elle souhaite promouvoir des mécanismes de sécurité pour la réforme de police sous l’égide de la PESD, en accordant une plus grande attention aux besoins locaux en termes de sécurité. Sa légitimité et la crédibilité de son action s’en trouveraient renforcées, lui permettant de mettre en avant de façon plus saillante les principes directeurs de transparence, de responsabilité et de respect des droits de l’homme et de l’Etat de droit dans un pays aux autorités largement corrompues.</p>
<p><strong>Références</strong></p>
<p><em>Council of the European Union</em> 2009a: Council Joint Action 2009/466/CFSP of 15 June 2009 amending and extending Joint Action 2007/405/CFSP on the European Union police mission undertaken in the framework of reform of the security sector (SSR) and its interface with the system of justice in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (EUPOL RD Congo), Official Journal of the EU L 151/40, 16 June 2009.</p>
<p><em>Council of the European Union</em> 2009c: Council Joint Action 2009/128/CFSP of 16 February 2009, extending the mandate of the European Union Special Representative for the African Great Lakes Region, Official Journal of the European Union, L 46/36-39, 17 February 2009.</p>
<p><em>Council of the European Union</em> 2007b: Council Joint Action 2007/405/CFSP of 12 June 2007 on the European Union police mission undertaken in the framework of reform of the security sector (SSR) and its interface with the system of justice in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (EUPOL RD Congo), Official Journal of the European Union L 151/ 46-51, 13 June 2007.</p>
<p><em>Davis, Laura</em> 2009: Justice-Sensitive Security System Reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo, International Alert, Initiative for Peacebuilding, IFP Cluster.</p>
<p><em>De Goede, Meike</em> 2008: Private and Public Security in Post-War Democratic Republic of Congo, in: Sabelo Gumedze (Ed.), Private Security in Africa: Country Series, Pretoria, pp. 35-68.</p>
<p><em>EUPOL RD Congo</em> 2009: Factsheet on the European Police mission EUPOL RD Congo EUPOL RDC/05 (update: March 2009), Council website, 21 August 2009, http:// www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1306?=EN</p>
<p><em>EUPOL RD Congo</em> 2008: Factsheet - Background information on the CSRP (Comité de Suivi de la Réforme de la Police), Council website, 1 December 2008, http:// www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=1306?=EN</p>
<p><em>Gros-Verheyde, Nicolas</em> 2009: Les 27 vont étendre le mandat de EUPOL Congo à la lutte contre les viols, Blog Bruxelles2, 17.10.2009, http://bruxelles2.over-blog.com/</p>
<p><em>Hoebeke, Hans/Carette, Stéphanie/Vlassenroot Koen</em> 2007: EU support to the Democratic Republic of Congo, Brussels: Centre d’analyse stratégique, IRRI-KIIB.</p>
<p><em>Hönke, Jana</em> 2009: Sicherheit in Räumen begrenzter Staatlichkeit, in: Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte (ApuZ), 8: 15-21.</p>
<p><em>Institute for Security Studies</em> 2007: Conference report on the Regulation of the private security sector in Africa, compiled by the Defence Sector Programme, Pretoria, 19-20 April 2007.</p>
<p><em>International Crisis Group (ICG)</em> 2006: Security Sector Reform in the Congo, Africa Report n°104, 13 February 2006.</p>
<p><em>Keane, Rory</em> 2008: “Security Sector Reform in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: the Role Played by the European Union”, in: Spence, David / Fluri, Philipp (Eds.), The European Union and Security Sector Reform, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 217-228.</p>
<p><em>Martinelli, Marta</em> 2008: Implementing ESDP in Africa: the case of the Democratic Republic of Congo, in: Merlingen, Michael/Ostrauskaite, Rasa (Eds.), European Security and Defence Policy: an Implementation Perspective, Routledge, 111-127.</p>
<p><em>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)</em> 2004: Security System Reform and Governance, Policy and Practice, Paris: DAC Guidelines and Reference Series.</p>
<p><em>Rauch, Janine/Van der Spuy Elrena</em> 2006: Police Reform in Post-conflict Africa. A Report, Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA), Octobre 2006.</p>
<p><em>Richards, Ann/Smith, Henry May</em> 2007: Addressing the role of private security companies within security sector reform programmes, Journal of Security Sector Management, 5: 1.</p>
<p><em>Vaillant Charlotte</em> 2006: Peacebuilding in the Great Lakes: Challenges and Opportunities for the EU in the DRC, International Alert.</p>
<p>________________________________________</p>
<p>[1] En 2002, le Dialogue Inter-Congolais tenu à Sun City (Afrique du Sud) a permis l’établissement d’un gouvernement de transition selon le “système du 1+4”[1]. Suite à la signature et à la mise en oeuvre de l’accord de paix (All Inclusive Agreement), les représentants de la communauté internationale, dont l’UE, ont renforcé leur soutien au processus de transition tout en supervisant le processus politique à travers le Comité International d’Accompagnement de la Transition (CIAT). Finalement, les premières élections démocratiques depuis l’indépendance de la RDC en 1960 se sont tenues en juin et octobre 2006 suite à l’adoption de la Constitution en décembre 2005.</p>
<p>[2] L’UE a notamment apporté un soutien important aux institutions de transition depuis 2003 afin de permettre la tenue d’élections dans des conditions satisfaisantes en 2006 (Hoebeke/Carette/Vlassenroot 2007: 3).</p>
<p>[3] La Mission de l&#8217;Organisation des Nations Unies en RD Congo, l’opération de maintien de la paix la plus importante lancée depuis 1999: http://monuc.unmissions.org/</p>
<p>[4] Ce groupe comprenait des experts de police de la PNC, des représentants de l’UE (à savoir de la mission de police EUPOL Kinshasa et de la Commission européenne), des Nations Unies (avec la MONUC et le CIVPOL) ainsi que de l’Afrique du Sud, de l’Angola, de la France et du Royaume-Uni.</p>
<p>[5] Son conseil exécutif fut établi en septembre 2007, comprenant à la fois des experts nationaux et internationaux représentant la Police Nationale congolaise, la société civile du pays et des ministères, la section de police de la MONUC ainsi que d’EUPOL RD Congo.</p>
<p>[6] Son mandat a été prolongé d’un an par deux fois, jusqu’à juin 2010 (Council of the EU 2009a, EUPOL RD Congo 2009).</p>
<p>[7] EUSEC RD Congo est une mission de conseil et d’assistance à la réforme de sécurité en RDC. Lancée en 2007, la mission a été étendue jusqu’au 30 septembre 2010. Déployée à Kinshasa, les Kivus and Bukavu, elle assiste les autorités congolaises dans la réforme de la chaîne de paiement des soldats (recensement biométrique), avant de soutenir l’élaboration d’une doctrine d’emploi au sein de l’armée.</p>
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		<title>Wirtschaftspolitische Antworten auf die hohen Erdölpreise</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/wirtschaftspolitische-antworten-auf-die-hohen-erdolpreise/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/wirtschaftspolitische-antworten-auf-die-hohen-erdolpreise/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 02 Dec 2009 18:50:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Citizenship and Institutions]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=165</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Ádám Lászlop promoviert am Institut für Landschaftsarchitektur und Umweltplanung der Technischen Universität Berlin.
 
Die europäische Wirtschaft [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="Style1" style="text-align: center; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="center"><span class="FontStyle31"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Ádám Lászlop promoviert am Institut für Landschaftsarchitektur und Umweltplanung der Technischen Universität Berlin.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 0cm; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 0cm; margin: 5.05pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Die europäische Wirtschaft kann sich derzeit an den sehr hohen Ölpreisen ohne beträchtliche Erschütterungen anpassen. Dementsprechend verfügt die Wirtschaftspolitik über eine relativ beschränkte Rolle. Gleichzeitig gibt es einige Bereiche, in denen eine wirtschaftspolitische Intervention erforderlich sein kann. Dabei handelt es sich um die Folgenden:</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style3" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 27pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt left 2.0cm;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">a)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;">Anreiz der Produktion und der Verwendung von Biotreibstoffen,</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style3" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 27pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt left 2.0cm;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">b)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;">Investitionen in die globale Energieinfrastruktur,</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style3" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 27pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt left 2.0cm;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">c)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;">Verbesserung der Energieeffizienz,</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style3" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 27pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 27.0pt left 2.0cm;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">d)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">     </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;">Verbesserung der Anpassungsfähigkeit der europäischen Wirtschaft.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 0cm; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; tab-stops: 2.0cm;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Nachstehend werde ich die Erforderlichkeit der wirtschaftspolitischen Aktion hinsichtlich dieser vier Bereiche begründen und die wichtigsten Initiativen der Europäischen Union darstellen. Mehrere dieser Schritte sind in dem, von der Europäischen Kommission im Januar 2008 initiierten Climate Action Plan enthalten, der auf die Realisierung der Zielsetzungen des im März 2007 angenommenen Energie- und Klimapakets ausgelegt ist. Demnach wird die Emission der Treibhausgase fürs Jahr 2020 in der EU – im Vergleich zum Jahr 1990 – um 20% reduziert und der Anteil der erneuerbaren Energieträger im Bereich des primären Energieverbrauchs auf 20% erhöht werden. In diesem Zusammenhang wird der Anteil der Biotreibstoffe im Energieverbrauch des Verkehrs auf 10% steigen.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.1pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">a) Biotreibstoffe</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.1pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 3.1pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">Die Entwicklung des Biotreibstoffmarktes wird von mehreren Faktoren gehemmt (Walter et al., 2007), von denen die Hindernisse des internationalen Handels hervorzuheben sind. Derzeit gibt es keine technischen Spezifikationen oder Importregelungen bezüglich der Biotreibstoffe. Da Biotreibstoffe den landwirtschaftlichen Produkten zugeordnet sind, sind die Zoll- und zollartigen Hindernisse im internationalen Handel vergleichsweise stark. Wegen der Einordnungsprobleme ist auch schwer zu bestimmen, wie ausgeprägt der internationale Handel mit Biotreibstoffen ist und wie sich dieser entwickelt. Obwohl freier Handel den Massenimport von billigeren und umweltverträglicheren Biotreibstoffen für Europa ermöglichen könnte, können ökologische wie auch soziale Bedenken Hindernisse darstellen, wie z.B. die Schädigung der Wälder und des Bodens, die Produktion in Monokulturen, die sich verstärkende Kontamination durch Kunstdünger, sowie der Wettbewerb mit der Lebensmittel- und Futtermittelproduktion um die Ressourcen. Diese treten in den Entwicklungsländern besonders stark auf, wenn die aus dem Export stammenden kurzfristigen Vorteile vor die langfristigen Zielsetzungen gesetzt werden. Die Kontamination der in den internationalen Handel kommenden Produkte stellt auch eine Umweltgefahr dar. Obwohl diese Argumente eine gewisse Gültigkeit beanspruchen können, ist es auch nicht erstaunlich, dass diese in Europa zumeist zwecks Wahrung der Interessen von den örtlichen Produzenten nur vorgeschoben werden</span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">.<sup> </sup></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 3.1pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Die Entwicklung des Biotreibstoffmarktes kann außer durch die Handelspolitik durch mehrere wirtschaftspolitischen Mittel – wie die Stärkung des nationalen Verbrauchs, ein verbindlicher Mix aus fossilen und Biotreibstoffen, Mittel der Agrarpolitik, Informationskampagnen und gezielte Forschung und Entwicklung – befördert werden. Die von der Europäischen Union im Jahr 2006 begonnene Biotreibstoff-Strategie schlägt die Anwendung ähnlicher Mitteln vor. Die im Rahmen des Climate Action Pakets bezüglich<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>erneuerbarer Energie geplante Richtlinie würde fürs Jahr 2020 in den Mitgliedstaaten einen 10 %-igen Anteil der Biotreibstoffe im Treibstoffverbrauch des Verkehrs verbindlich machen. Die Handelspolitik kann zur Verbreitung der Biotreibstoffe beitragen, derzeit ist aber kontrovers, ob freier Handel oder Marktschutz die Erreichung der Zielsetzungen des Biotreibstoff-Verbrauchs am bestens befördern kann. In dieser Hinsicht ist die Biotreibstoff-Strategie der EU durchaus ambivalent zu bewerten.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.85pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">b) Erforderlichkeit der Investition in die Energieinfrastruktur</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.85pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 3.85pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Die globalen Öl- und Gasindustrien bedürfen bereits zur Aufrechterhaltung der Produktion großer Investitionen. Nach Schätzungen der IEA (2006) machen diese zwischen 2004 und 2030 – auf dem Realwert von 2005 gerechnet – einen Betrag von 4,3 Billiarden Dollar aus. Bei den Raffinerie- und Lieferkapazitäten wäre eine Investition in Höhe von 0,8, bei der Förderung von 3,5 Billionen Dollar erforderlich. 90% der letztgenannten Summe dient der Aufrechterhaltung der vorhandenen Kapazitäten, der restliche Anteil der Erweiterung der vorhandenen Kapazitäten. Gleichzeitig ist fraglich, ob diese Investitionen sich unter Berücksichtigung der untenstehenden Ursachen überhaupt realisieren lassen.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 0.25pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">(1) Die bedeutenden Ölproduzenten (einschließlich Saudi-Arabien, Kuwait und Russland) schränken ausländische (auch die privaten) Investitionen in ihrem Energiesektor stark ein. Die Situation in Russland ist für Europa besonders wichtig, da 30% der Rohölimporte und 33% der Erdgasimporte der EU aus diesem Land stammen und sich ihr Anteil laufend erhöht. Die größten russischen Öl- und Gasfelder werden jedoch langsam aufgebraucht. Private Investoren begegnen oft Schwierigkeiten, die ihre Investitionen behindern - deswegen wird es immer zweifelhafter, ob die russischen Öl- und Gasunternehmen in staatlichem Besitz im Stande sein werden, die Nachfrage zu befriedigen </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">(IEA, 2007; </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">Ahrend-Thompson, </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">2006).</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">(2) Die meisten Kohlenwasserstoffreserven sind in der Hand staatlicher Unternehmen, die sich in Monopolstellung befinden (zum Beispiel in Saudi-Arabien). Aus der ökonomischen Literatur geht eindeutig hervor, dass staatliche Unternehmen – besonders die Monopole – weniger wirksam sind als die in konkurrierender Umgebung existierenden Privatunternehmen: Sowohl für den Staat (als Besitzer), als auch für das Unternehmen in Monopolstellung ist der Anreiz für eine wirksame Tätigkeit geringer, deswegen bleibt auch die Abbau- und Investitionswirksamkeit der staatlichen Ölunternehmen hinter dem Optimum zurück </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">(Wolf, </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">2008).</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">(3) Der Investitionsanreiz wird durch zwischenstaatliche Konflikte und Bürgerkriege (zum Beispiel im Irak oder in Nigeria) sowie von Umweltschutzbedenken getrübt (zum Beispiel in den USA oder in Kanada).</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.3pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">(4) Die konzentrierte Marktstruktur der Ölproduktion sowie die lange Rücklauffrist der Investitionen müssen ebenfalls berücksichtigt werden. Nach dem Ölpreisschock der achtziger Jahre haben die OPEC-Mitgliedstaaten bedeutende Kapazitäten gebildet. Diese überschüssigen Kapazitäten haben in den neunziger Jahren die Ölpreise gedrückt. Dadurch hat sich der Wert der Investitionen erheblich reduziert. Derzeit ist das Gegenteil der Fall: Die Ölproduzenten – die um eine Senkung der Ölpreise fürchten – möchten kein Risiko übernehmen, wie es Investitionen bedeuten würden.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 2.4pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">(5) In den vergangenen Jahren sind außerdem die Investitionskosten erheblich gestiegen. In jüngerer Zeit erschlossene Vorräte außerhalb der OPEC Länder sind immer schwieriger zugänglich und mit höheren Kosten verbunden. Weiterhin macht sich ein Mangel an erforderlichen Investitionsgütern und Fachkräften bemerkbar. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 0.25pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; tab-stops: 4.0cm;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Aus den obigen Gründen können die Kapazitäten mittelfristig nur ungenügend bleiben. Politiken, die Anreize für eine Investition in Energieinfrastruktur herstellen, können dazu beitragen, dass die Ölpreise längerfristig reduziert werden. Diese sollten den Öl produzierenden Ländern bei der Befriedigung der Nachfrage helfen. Auf diesem Gebiet ist die Einflussnahme der Binnenmarktpolitik der Europäischen Union stark beschränkt, die Mittel der Handels- und Außenpolitik würden sich eher anbieten. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.1pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">c) Energieeffizienz und Abfallrecycling </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 1.45pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">Obwohl die Möglichkeiten kostenwirksamer und energiesparender Investitionen außerordentlich sind, reagieren weder die Haushalte noch die Unternehmen darauf. Die Unternehmen investieren nicht unterhalb eines Rücklaufs von 30%, was auch als „Energieeffizienzparadox“ bezeichnet wird </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">(DeCanio, </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">1998). Nach einem Bericht von McKinsey (2007) investieren Unternehmen, die auf Energieersparnisse abzielen, nur wenn eine 20%-ige innere Rücklaufrate überschritten wird. Dies kann einerseits durch die Unsicherheit erklärt werden, die sich aus den Gesamtkosten und dem Rücklauf der Investition ergibt. Entscheidungsträger verfügen über keine entsprechenden Informationen, sind risikoavers und maximalisieren ihre Ziele nicht. Überdies wird die Nachhaltigkeit des Energieverbrauches noch durch die Unternehmensstrukturen und -kulturen gehemmt. Für Unternehmensentscheidungen spielt die Stabilität der Energiepreise eine gewichtige Rolle. Einer anderen Studie </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">(Kuper </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">und </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">van Soest, </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">2006) zufolge wird sich neben der stärkeren Volalität der Energiepreise die Empfindlichkeit der Ölnachfrage gegenüber Preiserhöhungen reduzieren.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 1.45pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Der Aktionsplan der Europäischen Kommission zur Energieeffizienz von 2006 führt sechs Hauptgebiete gemeinschaftlicher Aktionen auf: eine erhöhte Wirksamkeit der Energieverbrauchsforderungen, Verbesserung der Energietransformation, Verbesserung der Energieeffizienz des Transportes, Finanzierung der Energieeffizienz, eine Sensibilisierung zu energiesparendem Verhalten und Anreize für Energieersparnisse in der internationalen Zusammenarbeit. In diesem Bereich kann die Handelspolitik mittelbar Hilfe leisten, indem sie durch eine offenere und konkurrenzbetontere Marktgestaltung die Unternehmen dazu bringt, die Wirksamkeit ihres Energieverbrauchs zu erhöhen, ferner indem die den Zugang zu den energiewirksamen Produkten befördert.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 1.45pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Im Bereich der Abfallwirtschaft zeichnen sich ebenfalls ungenutzte Möglichkeiten ab. Dazu fehlen jedoch Regeln auf EU-Ebene, was Ökodumping ermöglicht. Abfall kann so in über weniger strenge Vorschriften verfügende Mitgliedstaaten (oder auch Nicht-EU-Staaten) gelangen. Gleichzeitig sind die Regeln des Abfalltransports so restriktiv, dass sich die Menge der zum Recycling zur Verfügung stehenden Abfälle übermäßig reduziert.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.8pt; margin: 1.45pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">     </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: left; margin: 3.35pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;" align="left"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">d) Die Anpassungsfähigkeit der europäischen Wirtschaft</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 17.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 17.75pt; margin: 0.95pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">Sowohl die ökonomische Theorie als auch praktische Erfahrungen zeigen, dass das Niveau der Ölpreise keine dauerhafte Wirkung auf das Wirtschaftswachstum hat. Die Wirtschaft kann sich also jedwedem Ölpreis mit einmaligem Ausgabenverlust anpassen, ihre langfristigen Wachstumsaussichten werden sich aber nicht ändern. Die Produzenten und die Konsumenten teilen die Anpassungskosten in Form von niedrigeren Ausgaben, höherer <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Preise und dem Verlust von Arbeitsplätzen. Die Länge und die Kosten der Anpassung, sowie die Verteilung der Lasten zwischen den wirtschaftlichen Aktoren hängen gleichzeitig von den Institutionen ab und kann auch durch die öffentliche Ordnung noch beeinflusst werden. So können zum Beispiel starke Gewerkschaften hohe und dauernde Arbeitslosigkeit verursachen, die weniger integrierten und konkurrierenden Geldmärkte können die Anpassung der Unternehmen behindern. Der Ausschluss von Unternehmen vom Wettbewerb kann dazu führen, dass diese Firmen die Lasten der Anpassung auf die Konsumenten abwälzen (vgl. z. B.: </span></span><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE">Leiner-Killinger </span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">et al., 2007). Arbeitslosigkeit reduzierende und das Wachstum befördernden Politiken werden in der EU mit Priorität behandelt. Im Mittelpunkt der erneuerten Lissabon-Strategie unter dem Motto „Wachstum und Arbeitsplatzbeschaffung“ stehen diese Politiken, die außerdem hinsichtlich der Funktion der wirtschaftlichen und Monetären Union bestimmend wirken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span></span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 17.3pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Die Regulierung der Produktmärkte ist in der Europäischen Union vom Ideal weit entfernt. Obwohl die europäische Binnenmarktpolitik sowohl für die Produzenten als auch für die Konsumenten gewinnbringend war, sind die daraus enstandenen Möglichkeiten nicht vollständig genutzt worden. Hindernisse existieren zum Beispiel nach wie vor in den Bereichen der Regulierung, Konkurrenz und Innovation, beziehungsweise in einigen Branchen (zum Beispiel. im Energiesektor), da das politische Prorgamm unvollständig oder nicht sinngemäß angewandt wurde. Die hinsichtlich des Energiemarkts wichtigsten Produktmarktpolitiken sind die Folgenden: </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">·</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Die weitere Liberalisierung des europäischen Energiemarktes, (Das dritte Regulierungspaket der Europäischen Kommission bezüglich des Strom- und Gasmarktes wurde im September 2007 beschlossen, die Minister für Energiewesen haben die diesbezügliche Vereinbarung am 10. Oktober 2008 getroffen.) </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style18" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt left 41.05pt;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">·</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Liberalisierung des Verkehrs und des Transportes, die Entwicklung der transeuropäischen Netzwerke,</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style18" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt left 41.05pt;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">·</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">Verminderung der Bürokratie und Verbesserung der Geschäftsumgebung, </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style18" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; text-indent: -18pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 36.0pt left 41.05pt;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font-size: small;">·</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">      </span></span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">die selektive Industriepolitik für die Verbreitung von energieeffizienten Technologien (Ab Juli 2008  mit einem gesonderten Aktionsplan sowie mit dem europäischen Strategischen Energietechnologieplan – SET-Plan).</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style2" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: 16.3pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Die europäische Handelspolitik spielt eine indirekte Rolle für die Erhöhung des Anpassungspotentials der Unternehmen. Die Sicherstellung der unverzerrten Konkurrenz auf den internationalen Märkten könnte für die Unternehmen – zur Verbesserung ihrer Wirksamkeit sowie im Bereich des Energieverbrauches – einen starken Anreiz bedeuten. So könnten diese hinsichtlich der zukünftigen Energiepreisänderungen auch widerstandsfähiger werden. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Fazit</span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Mit der trendartigen Ölpreiserhöhung der 2000er Jahre hat sich angekündigt, dass das Angebot mit der sich dynamisch erweiternden Nachfrage nur schwer Schritt halten kann. Die spontane Anpassung der Wirtschaften an das teurer werdende Öl geschah relativ schnell und nahtlos. Die Anpassung vollzog sich maßgeblich aufgrund der Reaktionsfähigkeit der Unternehmensversorgungsketten, aufgrund der Treibstoffsubstitution, in einigen Branchen auch aufgrund der Übersiedlung der Produktion in die Nähe der Energiequellen sowie der Verbesserung der Energieeffizienz. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">Der Markt der Biotreibstoffe ist aussichtsreich. Diesbezüglich existieren aber noch sehr viele Unsicherheiten. Der Markt wird von den von den USA und der EU vermittels Subventionen stark verzerrt. Oft wird die teurere und ökologisch problematische Produktion unterstützt, unerwähnt bleiben die weiteren, damit verbundenen negativen Auswirkungen (z.B. Verdrängung der Produktion von Lebensmittel-Grundmaterialen). Diese Subventionen müssen neu überdacht und ein Rahmen für den internationalen Handel geschaffen werden.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS'; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">Einige Energieexport-Länder lassen keine ausländischen Investoren in ihre Energiesektoren. Dies mag sicherheitspolitisch begründet sein, langfristig bedrohen diese Länder aber die Energieversorgungssicherheit und tragen zur Volalität der Ölpreise bei.</span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE"> </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Die europäische Handelspolitik kann dazu beitragen, dass Unternehmen im Ausland und auch in der EU unter Wettbewerbsbedingungen funktionieren und die Haushalte wie auch die Unternehmen zu Energieersparnissen angehalten werden. </span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="DE">In der Energieeffizienzsteigerung liegt ein bedeutendes Potential. Mögliche Mittel können Informationsprogramme, Regelungen und Subventionen sein. Die europäische Handelspolitik kann dazu beitragen, indem sie dafür wirbt, Handelsbeschränkungen abzubauen.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Da Produktion und Export der wichtigsten globalen Energieträger bei vielen Export-Ländern in einer Hand liegen, nutzen diese ihre Position auch politisch aus. Die Handels- und Wirtschaftspolitik der Abnehmerländer kann dadurch stark eingeschränkt werden.</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan; mso-prop-change: 'Stefan Beck' 20090924T1914;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="DE"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style5" style="text-align: justify; margin: 4.8pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span class="FontStyle27"><span style="font-style: normal; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;" lang="EN-GB">L</span></span><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="EN-GB">iteratur</span></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Style1" style="text-align: justify; margin: 2.65pt 0cm 0pt; mso-pagination: widow-orphan;"><span class="FontStyle28"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;" lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">WALTER, A; ROSILLO-CALLE, F.; DOLZAN, P. B.; PIACENTE, E; DA CUNHA, K. B., MarketEvaluation: Fuel Ethanol. Task 40 Sustainable Bio-energy Trade, Securing Supply and Demand, Paris, IEA Bioenergy, 2007</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">IEA, World Energy Outlook, Paris, International Energy Agency, 2006.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">IEA, World Energy Outlook, Paris, International Energy Agency, 2007.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">WOLF, C., „Does Ownership Matter? The Performance and Efficiency of State Oil vs. Private Oil (1987–2006)” Cambridge Working Papers in Economics, Cambridge, University of Cambridge, 2008</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">AHREND, R.; THOMPSON, W., Realising the oil supply potential of the CIS: The impact of institutions and policies, OECD Economics Department, 2006</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">DE CANIO, S. J., The Efficiency Paradox: Bureaucratic and Organizational Barriers to Profitable Energy-Saving Investments, Energy Policy, 1998</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">MC KINSEY, Curbing Global Energy Demand Growth: The Energy Productivity Opportunity, McKinsey Global Institute, 2007</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">KUPER, G. H.; VAN SOEST, D. P., Does Oil Price Uncertainty Affect Energy Use? Energy Journal, 2006</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: TimesNewRoman; mso-no-proof: no;" lang="HU"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">LEINER-KILLINGER, N.; LÓPEZ PÉREZ, V.; STIEGERT, R.; VITALE, G., Structural Reforms in EMU and the Role of Monetary Policy. European Central Bank, 2007</span></span></span></p>
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		<title>Recommended books</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/recommended-books/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/recommended-books/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 02 Dec 2009 18:39:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Opinion Column]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/recommended-books/</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[ Europe’s Economic priorities 2010 - 2015 : Memos to the new Commission
Bruegel, Edited by André [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"> <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Europe’s Economic priorities 2010 - 2015 : Memos to the new Commission</span></span></span></em></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Bruegel, Edited by André Sapir.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Bruegel is an International Economic think-tank based in Brussels since 2005.It seeks to contribute to European and global economic policy-making through open, fact-based and policy-relevant research, analysis and debate. It produces a range of publications that go from <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Bruegel Blueprint </em>which is devoted to central questions at the moment to the <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bruegel Policy Briefs </em>that are directed to policy makers and specialists or the <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Policy Contribution, </em>which contributes to particular policy debates or responds to political consultation papers. Additionally Bruegel publishes books, working papers, and collaborative papers with other organizations. Bruegel also organizes a number of events that together with its annual research programme is supported by European governments as well as leading international corporations and institutions.</span></span></span></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;">The first of September 2009, Bruegel published a collection of twelve Memos addressed to the new Commission that had still to take office at the time</span></span><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span style="font-family: "><a style="mso-comment-reference: N_1; mso-comment-date: 20091013T2017;"></a><a id="_anchor_1" class="msocomanchor" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" name="_msoanchor_1" href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/wp-admin/#_msocom_1">[N1]</a><span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;"><span style="mso-special-character: comment;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">. In a context of crisis, the expectations on the new Commission are particularly high. These memos aim at pointing out what key priorities the European Union should focus on. They underline the mayor importance of correctly defining the Commission’s new agenda which has <strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">to balance the short-term repercussions of the crisis with long-term issues (economic, social and political)</strong>. The crisis has to be put in the broader context of a long-term European strategy, as challenges such as environmental issues and aging population will still be there after the crisis and even with greater intensity. André Sapir, during a press conference on 20 September 2009 highlighted that <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">the real issue in the crisis is to make the right choices. </em></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></em></p>
<p class="Corps" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 35.45pt 70.85pt 106.3pt 5.0cm 177.15pt 212.6pt 248.05pt 283.45pt 318.9pt 354.35pt 389.75pt 425.2pt 460.65pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">The twelve strategic memos, edited by Andre Sapir, Senior Research Fellow at Bruegel, gather contributions from eleven different authors. These contributions focus on four broad economic areas:</span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">The first covers the crisis and post-crisis management. It deals mainly with macro-economic issues, the financial sector and coordination of exit strategies. There is also the issue of unemployment. This first set of articles provides an incisive angle on how to foster the integrity of the Internal Market. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Secondly, there are three contributions on the Internal Market, focusing more on the longer term issues and highlighting that the Internal Market is the main pillar of our economic strategy. What kind of financial system are we going to have for the longer term? What kind of stability do we want? As stated before, there are choices to be made and to be discussed. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">The third subject is about new sources of growth. Two of the pillars that can lend new growth are clearly knowledge and climate change control. Actions in this domain will consolidate the EU’s international position as a global actor. This is especially important before the crucial international meeting in Copenhagen this December. Actions must also define more precisely the EU as a knowledge economy on the international stage. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Finally, the fourth area focuses on regional and global policies, in other words, enlargement and neighbourhood policy, trade policy and development policy. Those are three policies that are very strong at the moment, but they also need some strategic rethinking. Again, there are choices to be made. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.3pt 56.65pt 85.0pt 113.35pt 141.7pt 170.05pt 198.4pt 226.75pt 255.1pt 283.45pt 311.8pt 340.15pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica;">Concerning the trade issue, the first priority is to conclude the Doha round. But what comes after Doha ? What vision for Europe ? What is the European vision for the international trade system ? Those questions are important to tackle knowing that Europe has this year become the largest trading partner in the world. </span></span></span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 252.0pt 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "> </span></p>
<p class="Formatlibre" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt; tab-stops: 28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 252.0pt 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "> </span></p>
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<div id="_com_1" class="msocomtxt" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')"><span style="mso-comment-author: Natasja;"><a name="_msocom_1"></a></span></div>
<p class="MsoCommentText" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span class="MsoCommentReference"><span style="font-size: 8pt;" lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: comment;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span><a class="msocomoff" href="http://eyesoneurope.eu/wp-admin/#_msoanchor_1"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">[N1]</span></a></span></span></span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">OFFICIALLY THERE IS NO NEW COMMISSION UNTIL JANUARY OR SO, we only have “running matters” commission now</span></span></span></p>
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		<title>Le Brevet Européen : un autre frein pour la croissance économique de l&#8217;Union</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/le-brevet-europeen-un-autre-frein-pour-la-croissance-economique-de-lunion/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/le-brevet-europeen-un-autre-frein-pour-la-croissance-economique-de-lunion/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 02 Dec 2009 18:35:04 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Economy and Society]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[11th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/12/le-brevet-europeen-un-autre-frein-pour-la-croissance-economique-de-lunion/</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[ 
Entretien avec Bruno van Pottelsberghe, Professeur à l&#8217;Université Libre de Bruxelles, Senior Fellow à Bruegel [...]]]></description>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Entretien avec Bruno van Pottelsberghe, Professeur à l&#8217;Université Libre de Bruxelles, Senior Fellow à Bruegel et auteur de « <em>Lost Property : The European Patent system and why it doesn&#8217;t work</em> », Bruegel Blueprint</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Julien Demoustier</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Un des objectifs affirmés de l&#8217;Union Européenne est de créer les conditions nécessaires pour une croissance économique à long terme. Néanmoins, les résultats économiques passés ainsi que les perspectives pour l&#8217;avenir sont loin d&#8217;être satisfaisants. Peu d&#8217;initiatives ont été lancées par l&#8217;Union afin d&#8217;atteindre cet objectif et peu de celles qui l&#8217;ont été manque d&#8217;ambition, à commencer par le très célèbre marché intérieur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>L&#8217;innovation a elle aussi du plomb dans l&#8217;aile. Non seulement les efforts consentis par les États-membres sont plus que décevant, en terme de recherche et développement par exemple, mais le système actuellement en œuvre concernant les brevets constitue un frein supplémentaire à l&#8217;innovation dans l&#8217;Union Européenne. En effet, il n&#8217;existe pas aujourd&#8217;hui<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>de brevet unique en Europe malgré l&#8217;instauration de l&#8217;Office Européenne des Brevets (OEB) en 1977. Ce sujet mérite aujourd&#8217;hui réflexion car un système de protection inefficace de l&#8217;innovation représente une barrière à l&#8217;innovation et donc nuit à la croissance économique. </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">A la veille des élections d&#8217;un nouveau Président de l&#8217;OEB, il est intéressant de présenter et d&#8217;expliquer le système actuel de l&#8217;obtention et de l&#8217;exploitation d&#8217;un brevet en Europe. Pour ce faire, M. van Pottelsberghe, professeur à l&#8217;Université Libre de Bruxelles, ancien chef économiste de l&#8217;OEB et auteur de « <em>Lost Property : The European Patent system and why it doesn&#8217;t work</em> », revoit avec nous les problèmes posés par le système actuel et certaines propositions de réformes dont il a fait référence dans son ouvrage. </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Un brevet pas si européen </span></span></span></strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Le brevet européen n&#8217;est en vérité pas réellement « européen ». Comme l&#8217;explique M. van Pottelsberghe « <em>cette terminologie induit en erreur car elle fait penser que l&#8217;on a un brevet européen, alors que ce dernier n&#8217;est qu&#8217;une sorte de diplôme. Il s&#8217;agit de la délivrance de qualité d&#8217;un brevet qui a été soumis pour examen. » </em>En effet, une fois délivré par l’OEB, le brevet doit encore être traduit et validé par les offices nationales de brevet pour pouvoir<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>être exploiter dans les pays désirés (en moyenne, les brevets délivrés par l’OEB ne sont validés que dans six pays sur les 35 pays membres de l’OEB). Il en va de même pour son renouvellement. « <em>En gros, dès que la procédure de l&#8217;OEB est terminée, l&#8217;aspect européen disparaît</em>. », comme le souligne M. van Pottelsberghe. Ce système est à l&#8217;origine de beaucoup de problèmes et constitue en fait un vrai frein pour l&#8217;innovation en Europe.</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Premièrement, les brevets coûtent cher pour une protection limitée. Les taxes d’examen et de recherche d’antériorité à l’OEB sont à la hauteur de la qualité, et il faut en plus prévoir les taxes de validation et de renouvellement dans les pays choisis. La procédure est donc extrêmement couteuse pour une protection géographique limitée. </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Deuxièmement, lorsqu&#8217;il y a litiges sur un brevet, ces derniers sont souvent menés dans différents pays. « <em>Ce qui est intéressant ici c&#8217;est que ces litiges aboutissent régulièrement à des résultats opposés. Ils commencent toujours par une remise en question de la validité du brevet, et donc un réexamen du brevet au niveau national. Déjà à ce stade, il y a de nombreux cas où les résultats différent entre les offices nationaux et l&#8217;OEB. En somme, si l&#8217;OEB délivre un brevet, un système national peut l&#8217;invalider à partir de cette procédure. Par contre si l&#8217;OEB refuse la délivrance, il reste possible de déposer un brevet directement à l’office national et d’éventuellement obtenir une délivrance : en d’autres termes il est possible de contourner l’OEB . C&#8217;est ce qui fait que le système actuel est illogique», </em>comme le précise M. van Pottelsberghe<em>. </em>En d&#8217;autres mots, il existe une insécurité juridique importante inhérente au schéma actuel. Le système ne prévoit pas un tribunal centralisé où les litiges seraient traités et qui fournirait une et une seule décision pour l’Europe. </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Troisièmement, « <em>à part les coûts importants et une incertitude élevée en cas de litiges parallèles, il reste une forte complexité managériale. En effet, la gestion du brevet doit se faire au cas par cas dans plusieurs pays, ce que les inventeurs, universités et PME innovantes ne peuvent se permettre, il ne s’agit donc pas que d’un coût prohibitif mais également d’une incertitude et complexité rédhibitoires</em>. » </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">En quelque sorte, le système est complètement « <em>anti-européen »</em>, pour reprendre les termes de M. van Pottelsberghe. </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">De mauvaises raisons à la décentralisation </span></span></span></strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Le système de brevet actuel est inefficace et donc une réforme de ce dernier serait plus que nécessaire. La question est ici de savoir pourquoi les États-membres de l&#8217;OEB, voire ceux de l&#8217;Union Européenne, n&#8217;interviennent pas afin de mettre sur pied un système centralisé. </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Le frein officiel à ce projet est la difficulté linguistique. Cet argument n&#8217;est qu&#8217;un masque derrière lequel les offices nationales se cachent afin de résister à l&#8217;instauration d&#8217;un brevet unique. En effet, comme l&#8217;a commenté M. van Pottelsberghe, «  i<em>l existe trois langues officielles à l&#8217;OEB, le français, l&#8217;anglais et l&#8217;allemand. Certains pays voudraient que toutes les langues soient représentées. Le coût que cela engendrerait rend cette option impossible. Donc, la solution envisagée pour le brevet communautaire est que l&#8217;OEB se charge de la traduction des revendications, qui est la partie du brevet la plus importante car il s&#8217;agit de la délimitation technico-légale de l&#8217;invention. L&#8217;OEB s&#8217; occuperait donc de sa traduction automatique par machine (logiciel)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>dans toutes les langues de l&#8217;Union, la traduction des autres parties du brevet serait dès lors limitées aux trois langues officielles de l&#8217;OEB. Les résistances à cette option proviennent essentiellement d&#8217;Espagne, pour des raisons à la fois symboliques et nationales. En fait il n&#8217;y a que quelques centaines de brevets qui sont déposés en espagnol. Ça ne vaut donc pas la peine d&#8217;ouvrir la boîte de Pandore pour si peu. </em>»</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Les raisons réelles du rejet du projet par les pays participants sont probablement plus d&#8217;ordre budgétaire et de contrôle, notamment de l&#8217;OEB. Actuellement, seuls les offices nationales des pays membres de l&#8217;OEB sont représentés au sein de son conseil d&#8217;administration, et ils verraient d&#8217;un mauvais œil le partage de ce contrôle. En effet, comme M. van Pottelsberghe l&#8217;explique :<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>« <em>l&#8217;OEB est considérée par les offices nationales comme la poule aux œufs d&#8217;or. En fait, dès qu&#8217;un brevet est délivré par l&#8217;OEB, il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;un brevet de qualité qui est validé et renouvelé dans les États-membres, la moitié de ces taxes de validation et de renouvellement vont directement dans les offices nationales. L&#8217;autre moitié<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>retourne à l&#8217;Office. Les offices nationales sont donc gagnants en ce qui concerne leur budget. Une éventuelle centralisation du système leur fait croire qu&#8217;ils perdraient des ressources financières, mais en fait les simulations montrent qu&#8217;ils ne perdront pas d&#8217;argent, que du contraire ». </em>En effet, dans une prochaine publication, Danguy et van Pottelsberghe (2009) ont évalué les conséquences de la centralisation du système européen des brevets pour les budgets des offices nationaux. Il en ressort qu&#8217;ils y gagneront. Le véritable problème n&#8217;est néanmoins pas le budget mais bien son contrôle, qu&#8217;ils risquent de perdre si le projet d&#8217;un brevet unique est concrétisé. En effet, le brevet communautaire pourrait donner lieu à une plus forte intégration et coordination avec les autres politique Européennes, et donc un contrôle plus prononcé du Parlement Européen ou de la Commission.</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Deuxièmement, les grands gagnants du système actuel que sont les conseillers en brevet, les traducteurs et les juristes spécialisés agissent de façon à ne pas perdre leurs avantages. En effet, si le projet d&#8217;un brevet unique aboutit, ces derniers verront leurs recettes diminuer de façon importante, de l’ordre de quelques centaines de millions d’Euro.</span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Stratégie de Lisbonne, crise économique et élection du futur Président de l&#8217;OEB : toutes des occasions de réformes ratées</span></span></span></strong></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">L&#8217;Union Européenne doit se munir d&#8217;une politique de croissance forte, dont le brevet fait partie à part entière. Dans son ouvrage, M. van Pottelsberghe appelle l&#8217;Union à mettre sur pied une stratégie qui assurerait une coordination efficace des différentes politiques ayant un lien avec la croissance économique. Outre la politique des brevets, les politiques industrielles, d&#8217;innovation, de recherche et de développement mais aussi la politique commerciale (en effet, cette dernière est compétente pour les négociations ayant attrait à la propriété intellectuelle au sein de l&#8217;Organisation Mondiale du Commerce) feraient partie d&#8217;un nouveau plan pour la croissance économique en Europe. Ceci dans le but de donner à la croissance économique une stratégie globale comprenant toutes les dimensions qui la concerne. Malheureusement, le marché européen reste fragmentée et donc peu efficace. Concernant l&#8217;OEB, la gouvernance a besoin d&#8217;être réformée afin de faire rentrer tous les acteurs compétents dans le conseil d&#8217;administration. Parmi ces acteurs, les représentants des entreprises en feraient partie tout comme les universités, les différentes DG compétentes (marché intérieur, recherche, concurrence et commerce extérieur, les conseillers en brevet et bien sur les offices nationaux, mais en plus petit nombre, 10 représentants des 27 pays membres par exemple.) </span></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">A plusieurs reprises, l&#8217;Union Européenne a eu l&#8217;opportunité de réformer sa gouvernance dans le domaine de l&#8217;innovation. Tout d&#8217;abord, il y eu la stratégie de Lisbonne dont l&#8217;objectif était de faire de l&#8217;Europe une économie portée par l&#8217;innovation. Mais, selon les termes de M. van Pottelsberghe (2008), « <em>la Stratégie de Lisbonne est plus une incantation politique qu&#8217;une implémentation, les Etats-membres n&#8217;ont rien fait. En recherche et développement, les 3 % promis n&#8217;ont jamais été atteint, et de ces 3 %, 1% devait provenir de fonds publics, nous ne les avons jamais atteint ».<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span></em></span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><em><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></em></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">La crise nous offre une chance unique de parvenir aux réformes dont l&#8217;Europe a besoin et parmi ces dernières, celle du système européen du brevet. Une nouvelle forme de gouvernance de l&#8217;institution a été proposée dans le Blueprint de M. van Pottelsberghe. « <em>Il faut profiter de la crise pour faire des changements drastiques qui donnent confiance aux entrepreneurs envers un système qui est là pour les aider et non freiner leur développement.</em> » En effet, dans la contribution en question, il est notamment fait référence à la crise dans les années 1870 en Allemagne. Cette dernière a été à l&#8217;origine de la modification de son système de brevet, jusqu&#8217;alors fragmenté entre les différents Länder. Cette réforme aurait eu notamment comme effet le développement du secteur chimique allemand.</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">La dernière opportunité manquée pour réformer le système est la future élection du nouveau Président de l&#8217;OEB et<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>« e<em>ncore une fois c&#8217;est fantastique. Des trois candidats restant [NDLR : le 13/ 11, il restait M. Roland Grossenbacher de Suisse, M.Benoît Battistelli de France et M. Jesper Kongstad du Danemark] aucun ne déclare publiquement ses intentions politiques concernant la création d’un brevet communautaire, une meilleure centralisation du système européen du brevet ou encore de revoir lala gouvernance. Ils n&#8217;en ont évidemment pas le pouvoir, mais pour parvenir à changer le système actuel le Président devra jouer un rôle symbolique et politique fort, c’est indispensable, </em>comme nous l&#8217;a fait savoir M. van Potteslberghe. </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">La politique des brevets n&#8217;est qu&#8217;une déception supplémentaire</span></span></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">Dans le domaine de la croissance économique, l&#8217;Europe nous a malheureusement habitué à choisir des stratégies trop frileuses et pas assez ambitieuses. Il n&#8217;est donc pas surprenant de voir de pauvres performances économiques dans l&#8217;Union Européenne. Bien que la politique des brevets apparaît au premier abord comme presque anecdotique, comparé par exemple à la politique industrielle ou à la recherche, elle reste néanmoins d&#8217;une grande importance. Nul ne peut en effet nier qu&#8217;un système de protection de l&#8217;innovation inefficace nuit au développement de nouvelles technologies porteuses de croissance. Une protection nationale sur un marché européen paraît comme contradictoire. L’Europe a réussit à créer un marché unique pour certaines activités économiques, elle a réussi à créer l’EURO, et la zône Shengen. Dès lors, pourquoi pas contribuer à créer le plus grand marché des technologie au niveau mondial, et éventuellement aider les petites entreprises innovantes à s’internationaliser ? Un brevet unique paraît quelque part indispensable et est à terme inévitable… « <em style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nous perdons simplement notre temps</em> ».</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">Références :</span></span></span></strong></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span lang="FR"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;">DANGUY, J. and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>VAN POTTERLSBERGHE DE LA POTTERIE, B., 2009, <em>Cost-benefit analysis of the community patent</em>, <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Bruegel working Paper</span>, forthcoming..</span></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">VAN POTTERLSBERGHE DE LA POTTERIE, B</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;" lang="EN-GB">., 2009, <em>Lost Property: the European patent system and why it doesn’t work</em>, <span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Bruegel Blueprint</span></span>, June, 68 p.</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;" lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">VAN POTTERLSBERGHE DE LA POTTERIE, B</span><span style="font-size: 11pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;" lang="EN-GB">., 2009, </span><span style="font-size: small;"><em><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">Europe’s R&amp;D: missing the wrong target?</span></em><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;" lang="EN-US">, <span style="text-decoration: underline;">Bruegel Policy Brief</span>, 2008/3.</span></span></span></p>
<p> </p>
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		<title>A new hope for Europe and World</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/a-new-hope-for-europe-and-world/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/a-new-hope-for-europe-and-world/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 11 May 2009 08:38:53 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Editorial]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[10th Issue]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[Editorial]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=159</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Sometimes a crisis provides an opportunity. This past fall, several Western governments initially responded to [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Sometimes a crisis provides an opportunity. This past fall, several Western governments initially responded to the financial meltdown by trying to handle it on their own. They seemed to forget about globalization - and nothing is more globalized than capital. Money flows around the world with no barriers, demanding international policy coordination. Belatedly recognizing this, leaders held the G20 meeting in Washington, a good first step. But to seriously address the crisis, we must move beyond this one event to a systemic fix. The IMF, for example, needs to be revamped and funded far more generously to handle such panics in the future.<span id="more-159"></span></p>
<p>European governments have been reluctant to cede power to the IMF and other forums. The United Nations is becoming increasingly irrelevant and antiquated, unable to adapt its structure to accommodate rising powers. Many emerging-market countries guard their sovereignty as jealously as does the United States, often even more so. Yet what alternative is there?</p>
<p>The point is that unless we find ways to expand and enhance the rules and institutions of global cooperation, the world will experience more and more crises and the government responses will be hasty and ad hoc, too little, too late. If, on the other hand, we come together and work together on the common problems of humanity, imagine the extraordinary opportunities it could create for everyone. Imagine if we created new rules of the road that allowed this extraordinary process of globalization and growth to persist and spread to every section of society, raising standards of living and health for the poorest of the poor, allowing more and more people to develop their potential.</p>
<p>Citizens and governments the world over have worked wonders during the past few decades. Now it&#8217;s time for their governments to match this ingenuity with new forms of cooperation. The great project of the 21st century should be a new architecture - one that helps to ensure growth and peace for the world.</p>
<p>Elections to the European Parliament mark a good startingpoint in the process of forging a new architecture in the current crisis and can also be seen as an opportunity granted to European citizens to become more involved. Democracy constitutes a form of government in which power is held by the people under a free electoral system. Currently, elections to the European Parliament portray a unique example where European citizens are directly called to question their visions and hopes. With an increasingly challenging financial crisis, complex international issues, and an erosion of democratic principles throughout the world, this new election will set an important new agenda and innovative perspectives for the future. Europe is not just a good idea; it is a necessity to stand up against the challenges of the world. An election is always a test for a system. As we saw in the United States, a change in leadership is necessary to revive the idea of democracy. Even in Europe we require new dynamic leaders who act on behalf of the people’s will. Europe needs to think as a political continuum from the local to continental level and passing through the regional and national. It must be a system of reflex against the extra threat and try to adapt to globalisation without searching to centralize, homogenize and distort. A new Parliament closer to the European citizen’s needs would certainly fulfil our hopes for a brighter future in Europe and indeed throughout the world.</p>
<p style="text-align: right;"><em>Fareed Zakaria, Editor of Newsweek International</em></p>
<p>Olivier Jarosz, Geneva Editor of Eyes On Europe</p>
<p>© 2009, Newsweek, Inc.  All rights reserved.  Reprinted by permission.</p>
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		<title>The EU Response to Development Challenges</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/the-eu-response-to-development-challenges/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/the-eu-response-to-development-challenges/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 11 May 2009 08:38:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Editorial]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[9th Issue]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[Editorial]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=158</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Although we are well aware of the financial crisis that has hit the world, we [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Although we are well aware of the financial crisis that has hit the world, we shouldn’t forget that there are 1.4 billion people living in extreme poverty according to the World Bank’s latest calculations. And that is the main challenge of our times. The last meeting within the framework of the UN’s General Assembly dedicated <span id="more-158"></span>to the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) was held recently on the 25th of September, 2008.</p>
<p>In September 2000 world leaders gathered at the UN and formally approved the Millenium Declaration. This declaration established 8 goals that had to steer actions for the next 15 years: reduce by half extreme poverty and hunger in the world; universalize primary education; promote gender equality; reduce infant and mother mortality rate; halt the spreading of AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis; protect the environment; and promote a global association for development.</p>
<p>At the last meeting in New York, world leaders concluded that the degree of achievement of these goals has been very uneven, with large disparities between regions and countries.</p>
<p>Europe’s performance in this area has been crucial in the past and remains so today and in the future. This is not just the case for citizens of developing countries but also for European citizens. It&#8217;s not just a question of solidarity; both development and security are also clearly interlinked in the long run.</p>
<p>Today the EU is the largest donor in the world, giving 62 billion dollars in 2007, three times more than the USA. Nearly 90% of all emergency aid to fight the food crisis has come from European treasuries. In fact, the European Parliament has just voiced its support for the Food Facility proposal: a billion euros that should help secure the next harvests in those places where food security is being threatened.</p>
<p>As regards the quality of aid, the Paris Declaration fixed clear objectives for Official Development Assistance (ODA) in terms of coherence and efficiency. The recent revision of what was postulated in Accra is crucial to improve the use of funding in order to maximize its impact and sustainability. Equally important is the revision of the Monterrey Process on the quantities and installments of financing for development, which will be discussed in Doha in November.</p>
<p>But ODA is not the only means of development aid. Other measures can be taken that would make up a useful source of financing, less dependent on donor countries. Global taxes on financial transactions, on weapons and on CO2 emissions have been suggested. These taxes would not only finance development but would also help reduce pollution, speculative financial transactions and wars. In turn, poverty eradication would be facilitated.</p>
<p>Other initiatives defend tax reforms that take into account the global dimension of the economy. However, before this step can be successful other problems such as fiscal dumping, tax havens and tax evasion in a globalized economy must be tackled. As a matter of fact, the flight of fraudulent capitals from developing countries is estimated at over 500 billion euros. This figure is five times the entire world ODA budget.</p>
<p>Other forms of leverage that are not linked to production, such as the reduction of commissions on immigrant’s remittances, are also innovative ways of financing development. These money transfers are a vital source of income to millions of people living in developing countries and they arrive directly to the families, thus bypassing any problems of corruption.</p>
<p>However, the aim of these measures is to facilitate the smooth integration of the world’s poorest economies into the international trade order. Our development policies should offer justice, not charity.</p>
<p>EPAs are another important topic; Europe should find a balance between helping the economies of developing nations that want to benefit from international trade without undermining their efforts for regional integration or their ability to choose their own national economic policies, business development strategies and so on.</p>
<p>Last but not least, another concern in development aid is the need to harness and adapt to climate change. Increasingly this topic is taking a leading role in the debate on development, and rightly so. The historical responsibility of developed countries as the worst polluters should lead us to make more efforts to alleviate climate change, and increase and adapt our aid for disaster preparedness and risk reduction.</p>
<p>In this respect a positive sign is the recent approval in the European Parliament of the Energy Package with the stipulation that 50% of tax income on CO2 emission auction sales should be destined for adaptation in developing nations. Along the same lines is the Parliament’s proposition that funding for mitigation and adaptation in poor countries ought not to flow from the European Development Fund but should be additional.</p>
<p>As with the Food Facility, the only thing we need now is for member states to agree with each other and give Europe the opportunity to lead the way.</p>
<p style="text-align: right;"><em>Josep BORRELL FONTELLES</em></p>
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		<title>EPA: Striking the Right Balance between Trade and Development</title>
		<link>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/epa-striking-the-right-balance-between-trade-and-development/</link>
		<comments>http://eyesoneurope.eu/2009/05/epa-striking-the-right-balance-between-trade-and-development/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 11 May 2009 08:37:44 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>eyesoneurope</dc:creator>
		
		<category><![CDATA[Dossier : Solidarity and cooperation]]></category>

		<category><![CDATA[9th Issue]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://eyesoneurope.eu/?p=157</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Worrying news on the credit crunch comes thick and fast. We hear of collapsing financial [...]]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Worrying news on the credit crunch comes thick and fast. We hear of collapsing financial markets, fearing our private bank could be next to make a false step. After decades of the US telling developing countries to liberalise their markets, we now see interventionism even in the USA. This message might be confusing, <span id="more-157"></span>especially when discussing EPAs. But let me be clear: financial markets behave differently form the real economy in trades of goods and services. Liberalised financial markets are subject to repeated bubbles and crashes whereas the international movement of goods and services is not. This difference is highly important and many economists like Jagdish Bhagwati of Columbia University have long warned about a dangerous confusion of financial markets and markets in goods. I believe it is important to keep this difference in mind when discussing EPAs.</p>
<p>From the Lomé Agreement of 1975 to the Cotonou Agreement in the year 2000 not many things changed in the trade relations between the EU and the six ACP regions. The EU granted a system of preferences to its former colonies to allow an easier access of their products to EU markets. Despite this advantage the share of ACP countries in international trade kept on decreasing. Since it is plain that those arrangements contravene with WTO rules on free trade, new solutions were needed. The Cotonou Agreement acknowledges this requirement in its Art. 36 (1) already. Therefore an essential aim of EU countries was to strengthen development aspects within these trade agreements. The sticking point was to finalise a WTO conform solution by the end of 2007.</p>
<p>Although negotiations started in 2003, regrettably not one of the agreements between the EU and its former colony states is signed by now. Not even the EU’s accord with comparatively compliant CARIFORUM, which was said to be signed in September. It is now expected to be signed in October. Other EPAs are much more complicated to negotiate because disparities between countries within the region are huge. Take for example the ACP region of West Africa where the oil producing Nigeria with a population of 140 million people is grouped with landlocked 12 million Mali with its rural economy. To all intents and purposes to create regional markets seemed often to be the bigger problem than the liberalisation of ACP markets towards the EU. In fact many of those countries refuse to dismantle tolls for their neighbour states.</p>
<p>If EPAs are to be a successful tool for development in ACP countries we need to increase Aid for Trade. Let me give you an example: all ACP countries face net losses in customs revenues. However, the loss might be partly made up for by increased trade in the medium to long term. But exactly this interim period - if you allow me to use this term here - has to be filled and only if trade is substantially increased, the net customs revenues are manageable. We therefore need massive aid for trade packages in order to stimulate trade. This can be done in many ways. Personally, I would even like to see micro-credits to SMEs to be included as an Aid for Trade measure. Especially in this field the Commission has to improve its track record.</p>
<p>Last but not least: There is no alternative to EPAs! It is essential to provide a new basis for trade and development between ACP countries and the EU – equal and fruitful. It is my strong wish that the first EPA with the CARIFORUM is signed by the end of the month.</p>
<p style="text-align: right;"><em> Jürgen Schröder MEP</em></p>
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